Benguet Research Articles

Effective Microorganisms (EM) as Bioremediation Agent of Profenofos Pesticide Residue in Vegetable Farm Soil from Benguet Province, Philippines

Effective Microorganisms (EM) as Bioremediation Agent of Profenofos Pesticide Residue in Vegetable Farm Soil from Benguet Province, Philippines

Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal and ritual plants utilized by the indigenous communities of Benguet province, Philippines

BackgroundThe Sto. Niño site in Benguet province, Philippines was once a mining area that has now been transformed into an agricultural land. In this area, there has been significant integration of the three indigenous people (IPs) Ibaloi, Kankanaeys and Kalanguyas with the Ilocano community. These IPs safeguard biodiversity and traditional knowledge, including medicinal plant use. However, the documentation of these plant species and their medicinal applications has not been systematic, with the resultant loss of knowledge across generations. This study aims to document the medicinal and ritual plants used by the indigenous communities at the site, in order to preserve and disseminate traditional medicinal knowledge that would otherwise be lost.MethodsEthnobotanical data were collected in Sto. Niño, Brgy. Ambassador, Municipality of Tublay, Benguet, Philippines, and collected through semi-structured interviews, together with focus group discussions (FGD). A total of 100 residents (39 male and 61 female) were interviewed. Among them, 12 were key interviewees, including community elders and farmers, while the rest were selected through the convenience and snowball technique. Demographic information collected from the interviewees included age, gender, and occupation. Ethnobotanical information collected focused on medicinal plants, including the specific parts of plants used, methods of preparation, modes of treatment, and the types of ailments treated. Ethnobotanical quantitative indices of the relative frequency of citations (RFC) and informant consensus factor (ICF) were calculated to evaluate the plant species that were utilized by the community.ResultsA total of 28 medicinal plants from 20 different families and 6 ritual plants from 5 different families were documented. Asteraceae, Poaceae, and Lamiaceae (10.71%) family are the most mentioned medicinal plant species, followed by Myrtaceae and Euphorbiaceae (7.14%). The most widely used growth form were herbs (46.4%), while leaves (61.5%) were the most utilized plant part, and the preparation of a decoction (62.2%) was the most preferred method of processing and application. The medicinal plants were most commonly utilized for wound-healing, cough and colds, stomachache and kidney trouble, whereas ritual plants were largely used for healing, protection, and funeral ceremonies.ConclusionThis study marks the first report on the medicinal and ritual plants used by a group of indigenous communities in Sto. Niño, Brgy. Ambassador, Tublay, Benguet Province. The data collected show that plant species belonging to the Asteraceae, Poaceae, and Lamiaceae family were the most mentioned and should be further evaluated by pharmacological analysis to assess their wider use for medicinal treatment.

Bulbophyllum bokodense (section Polymeres, Orchidaceae), a new species from Benguet Province, Luzon Island, Philippines

A new species of orchid, Bulbophyllum bokodense, is herein described and illustrated from Benguet Province, Luzon Island, Philippines. It closely resembles Bulbophyllum rinkei endemic to New Guinea, but is distinct by having a broader leaf, a shorter inflorescence, an acute petal apex, glabrous auricles, a slightly canaliculate labellum, mid lobe and apex of labellum devoid of concavity, and a longer stelidia. A detailed description, photographs, and illustration are also provided. Preliminary conservation assessment of the new species following IUCN guidelines suggest a conservation status of data deficient (DD).

Comparative Analysis of Different Forest Fire Susceptibility Models in Benguet, the Philippines

Fire is a common threat to forests in our country. It is usually uncontrolled and consumes the natural fuels of the forest, affecting both the vegetation and the soil. In the Philippines, forest fires are mostly frequent in regions with naturally occurring vegetation that is highly susceptible to forest fire, and one of them is the Cordillera Administrative Region. This study was conducted to [1] determine forest fire occurrences in Benguet province, [2] generate forest fire hazard maps using three indices [structural fire index (SFI), fire risk index (FRI), and hybrid fire index (HFI)], and [3] recommend potential forest management strategies to reduce fire susceptibility or manage fire occurrence in the province. NDMI, elevation, slope, aspect, distance from roads, and vicinity to settlements were the influencing factors used in the occurrence of forest fires. Moreover, forest fire occurrences in the province were collected from DENR records. Results revealed that from 2019–2021, a total of 90 forest fire incidents were observed in the area. In terms of the indices, results showed that maps using HFI and FRI revealed better results than the SFI model. Furthermore, there were forest fire incidences that coincided with the FRI model, particularly in those areas identified as having high and very high susceptibility ratings.

Design and Architecture of BenguetFresh: An IoT-Enabled Data-Driven System for Sustainable Agriculture

Agriculture plays a vital role in the Philippines, contributing significantly to its economy and providing livelihoods to a substantial portion of the population. Benguet province, known as the "Salad Bowl of the Philippines" for its favorable climate and fertile soil, exemplifies thriving agriculture-based livelihoods. However, challenges persist in the sector, with the low compliance rate of Philippine Good Agricultural Practices (PhilGAP) certification highlighting the need for innovative solutions to enhance sustainable practices, market access, and overall agricultural quality for Benguet farmers.
 This study presents the design and architecture of BenguetFresh a system designed to integrate data-driven monitoring and management practices with sustainable agriculture, while adhering to PhilGAP standards. Through stakeholder engagement, interviews, and systematic review, specific requirements and challenges of farmers in Benguet were identified and addressed.
 BenguetFresh employs cutting-edge technology, Arduino-based smart agriculture monitoring systems, enabling real-time data collection on environmental factors. Data analytics tools process this data to provide valuable insights, facilitating informed decision-making and resource optimization.
 The scalable architecture ensures efficient data flow and real-time processing, while user-friendly interfaces empower farmers with real-time and historical data visualization and data-driven recommendations. Furthermore, the integration of e-commerce functionality fosters direct connections between farmers and consumers, expanding market reach and improving economic outcomes.
 BenguetFresh's design and architecture serve as a blueprint for implementing data-driven, sustainable agriculture. The potential benefits extend to both farmers and consumers, ensuring high-quality, responsibly produced agricultural products. Embracing cutting-edge technology and industry standards, BenguetFresh paves the way for efficient, sustainable, and prosperous agriculture.

Functionality of Learning Sites for Agriculture as Farmers’ Field Schools in the Province of Benguet, Philippines

This study examines the functionality of Learning Sites for Agriculture (LSAs) as Farmers' Field Schools (FFS) in delivering key agricultural extension services in the BLISTT (Baguio, La Trinidad, Itogon, Sablan, Tuba, and Tublay) areas of the province of Benguet, Philippines. The research focuses on four primary services: training, technology demonstration, farm business advisory, and information and communication support. A cross-sectional comparative design was used, with a sample of 50 local farmers and 16 LSA cooperators. The study employed t-tests and ANOVA to compare perceptions of these services between the two groups. The findings revealed that local farmers and LSA cooperators generally shared similar perceptions, with no statistically significant differences across the four services (p > 0.05). Training and technology demonstration services were considered sufficient, while farm business advisory and information support services were moderately sufficient. Challenges in information and communication services were noted, particularly regarding limited internet connectivity in remote areas. Overall, the results indicate that LSAs effectively meet the needs of small-scale farmers in Benguet province. The improvements in information and communication infrastructure could further enhance their impact. Future research could explore the long-term effects of LSAs on agricultural productivity and the effectiveness of specific extension methods across different regions.

Capacity Audit on Disaster Risk Reduction and Management in Basic Education

Vulnerability may be associated with a community's capacity to act and counteract the effects of a hazard by enhancing the community's capacity to reduce risk. With this, the study seeks to assess the school's capacity for disaster risk reduction and management in terms of implementation differences and identify the obstacles and training requirements for DRRM in the Secondary Public Schools of the province of Benguet. The questionnaire was self-designed based on the activities of the four thematic areas, with its validity and dependability subject to verification. The result indicates that the resource capacity of public secondary institutions is moderately established. Regarding capability, there is no significant distinction between resources, knowledge, and talents. With the current School DRRM plan, every school has a disaster risk reduction and management plan, and most have evacuation and contingency plans. The Public Service Continuity plan and the local climate change action plan are present in only nine institutions. With this result, there are still many spaces to be filled, and the DRRM capacity of each public school must be improved. It may affect the school's performance in delivering its main objective to provide a safe and hazard-free environment. It is best to be proactive and ready to ensure that learners and teachers are safe. The result also indicates that public institutions must examine their system and enhance its implementation of the different thematic areas of DRRM; it does not require a complicated framework but a functional and understandable guideline. If DRRM is implemented effectively, it will assure the continuity of education and the safety of students and faculty.

Assessment of utilized species of macrofungi and evaluation of mycochemical composition and bioactive properties of Phellinus robiniae collected from Benguet Province, Philippines

Macrofungi have long been used as food, medicine and other purposes. Several studies have been conducted on various macrofungi, however little is known about the wild useful macrofungi from the mountainous areas in the Philippines. Therefore, this study was conducted to document the diversity of wild utilized macrofungi in Kabayan, Benguet to come up with the species listing of wild utilized macrofungi in the area and assessment of the mycochemical composition, anti-oxidant activity and cytotoxic property of the basidiocarps of Phellinus robiniae. Seven wild utilized macrofungi were documented, all were identified morphologically, while four were subjected through molecular techniques to confirm identity; of the 7 mushrooms identified, five are edible (Hypholoma capnoides, Lentinula lateritia, Tremella fuciformis, Tremella mesenterica and Albatrellus confluens) and two are medicinal (Heterobasidion annosum and Phellinus robiniae). The identified mushrooms were: Hypholoma capnoides 92% (MF511082), Lentinula lateritia 99% (AF031192), Tremella fuciformis 94% (KY105682), Albatrellus confluens, Heterobasidion annosum 97% (KU645332), Tremella mesenterica and Phellinus robiniae. Assessment of bioactive properties of P. robiniae showed that the basidiocarp contains eleven bio-active secondary metabolites (essential oils, phenols, sugars, triterpenes, coumarines, anthraquinones, anthrones, tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids and steroids). This study also revealed that P. robiniae exhibited anti-oxidant activity with a DPPH radical scavenging activity of 34.59% and a total phenolic content of 49.42 mg GAE/g. Moreover, the ethanolic extract of P. robiniae showed an LC50 of 328.05 ppm which is considered as moderately toxic. This study provides baseline information on the utilized species of wild mushrooms that are found in the area.

RESORT GUESTS' PERCEPTION: EVALUATING SERVICE QUALITY IN BENGUET RESORTS

This study presents the findings conducted on the profile of respondents and the extent of quality services in selected hot spring resorts in Benguet. The study utilizes mix method approach combining quantitative and qualitative methods. There were one hundred fourteen (114) total respondents from six (6) resorts in Benguet province. The respondents were predominantly adult males with a mix of educational backgrounds, including college-level and college graduate respondents. The majority of the respondents were local tourists from various provinces in the Philippines, with a significant number being employed. The study made use of survey questionnaires and structured interview. The study revealed that the selected resorts provided high-quality services in terms of tangibles, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy, with excellent reliability. Importantly, there was no significant difference in perception between resort guests and management regarding the extent of quality services across the mentioned variables and dimensions. These findings indicate overall excellence and satisfaction in the service quality of the hot spring resorts in Benguet, as perceived by both guests and management. Inferential statistics were used to analyze and interpret the data.

Educational Philosophies of Selected Colleges and Universities in Baguio City and Benguet Province Philippines

This study aimed to evaluate the educational philosophies implemented by a specific group of colleges and universities located in Baguio City and Benguet Province. This study examined the achievement of objectives, execution of programs, projects, and activities, severity of issues impacting the execution of these initiatives, and the efficacy of interventions employed to address these issues among faculty members in the College of Arts and Sciences and general education subjects. This study employed a questionnaire as the primary instrument for data collection. This study examined the perceptions and experiences of faculty members in Baguio City and Benguet Province. A total of 82 respondents, consisting of 62 faculty members from Baguio City and 20 faculty members from Benguet Province, were included in the sample. The sampling method employed was total enumeration. This study examines the applicability and effectiveness of school of philosophies in colleges of arts and sciences. The findings reveal that these philosophies were widely applied, and the teaching strategies derived from them were highly effective. Additionally, the faculty members frequently engaged in academic activities. However, they also faced serious constraints and difficulties. Consequently, there is a moderate need for coping strategies to overcome these challenges. This study examines the significant roles of educational philosophies in shaping teaching strategies and enhancing instructional materials among faculty members in selected colleges and universities in Baguio City and Benguet Province.

Assessment of the Implementation of Mother Tongue Based-Multilingual Education in the Province of Benguet

The Mother Tongue Based- Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) Program has been in operation for over ten years. While the program has had positive effects, perceived negative impacts have also been noted. The study focused on predicting the implementation of MTB-MLE in the Province of Benguet. It aimed to determine the positive and the negative effects of the program and the challenges currently encountered by teachers providing base data on the areas of the program needing improvement. The qualitative approach to research has been employed engaging the elementary school teacher participants in interviews. The responses eventually went through the three coding levels. Results revealed that the use of the mother tongue as medium of instruction helps the learners understand the lesson easily, encourages active participation in class, and assists learners better in reading. Contrastingly, the perceived negative effects include hindering the learning and use of two languages, impeding the grasp of the concepts in the next grade level, and reduction of learners’ confidence in using the second/target language. Meanwhile, the challenges teachers encounter cover lack of teaching materials and heterogeneity of their and the learners’ first language (L1). With the program’s implementation through time, while implementers wish to invest on the program strengths, challenges still post limits and pressures. It is therefore suggested that attention is paid to addressing the weaknesses striking a balance with the strengths by providing teacher trainings towards addressing the linguistic considerations and developing instructional materials that suit the teaching-learning needs.

Streptomyces coriariae sp. nov., a novel streptomycete isolated from actinorhizal nodules of Coriaria intermedia.

An actinobacterial strain, CMB-FB, was isolated from surface-sterilized root nodules of a Coriaria intermedia plant growing along Halsema Highway in the province of Benguet (Luzon, Philippines). The 16S rRNA gene sequence of CMB-FB showed high sequence similarity to those of the type strains of Streptomyces rishiriensis (99.4 %), Streptomyces humidus (99.1 %), Streptomyces cacaoi subsp. asoensis (99.0 %), and Streptomyces phaeofaciens (98.6 %). The major menaquinones of CMB-FB were composed of MK-9(H4), MK-9(H6) and MK-9(H8), and there was a minor contribution of MK-9(H10). The polar lipid profile consisted of phosphatidylethanolamine, unidentified aminolipids and phospholipids, a glycophospholipid and four unidentified lipids. The diagnostic diamino acid of the peptidoglycan was meso-diaminopimelic acid. The major fatty acids were iso-C16 : 0, anteiso-C15 : 0 and anteiso-C17 : 0. The results of physiological analysis indicated that CMB-FB was mesophilic. The results of phylogenetic, genome-genome distance calculation and average nucleotide identity analysis indicated that the isolated strain represents the type strain of a novel species. On the basis of these results, strain CMB-FB (=DSM 112754T=LMG 32457T) is proposed as the type strain of the novel species Streptomyces coriariae sp. nov.

Multi-event assessment of typhoon-triggered landslide susceptibility in the Philippines

Abstract. There is a clear need to improve and update landslide susceptibility models across the Philippines. This is challenging, as landslides in this region are frequently triggered by temporally and spatially disparate typhoon events, and it remains unclear whether such spatially and/or temporally distinct typhoon events cause similar landslide responses, i.e. whether the landslide susceptibility for one typhoon event is similar for another. Here, we use logistic regression to develop four landslide susceptibility models based on three typhoon-triggered landslide inventories for the 2009 Typhoon Parma (local name Typhoon Pepeng), the 2018 Typhoon Mangkhut (local name Typhoon Ompong), and the 2019 Typhoon Kammuri (local name Typhoon Tisoy). The 2009 and 2018 inventories were mapped across the same 150 km2 region of Itogon in Benguet Province, whilst the 2019 event was mapped across a 490 km2 region of Abuan in Isabela Province. The four susceptibility models produced are for the 2009, 2018, and 2019 inventories separately, as well as for the 2009 and 2018 inventories combined. Using the area under the receiver operator curve (AUROC) validation, the accuracy of the models is found to be 78 %–82 % for the Itogon models and 65 % for the Abuan model. To assess landslide time dependency, we use the AUROC validation and the Itogon models to quantify the degree to which susceptibility models derived from one event(s) in time can forecast/hindcast the landslides triggered by another. We find that using a susceptibility model for a typhoon event in one year to forecast/hindcast a typhoon in another leads to a 6 %–10 % reduction in model accuracy compared to the accuracy obtained when modelling and validating each event separately. This suggests some degree of time dependency in typhoon-triggered landslides in the Philippines. However, using a susceptibility model for two combined typhoon events (2018 + 2009) to forecast/hindcast each typhoon event separately led to just a 1 %–3 % reduction in model accuracy. This suggests that combined multi-event typhoon-triggered landslide susceptibility models will be more accurate and reliable for the forecasting of future typhoon-triggered landslides. Finally, by undertaking a high-level comparison of the Abuan and Itogon susceptibility models through space, we preliminarily suggest that there may be spatial dependency in typhoon-triggered landslides in the Philippines but that further work into issues of spatial dependency in this region is required.

Unsettling Migrant Reintegration: The Serial Risk‐Taking of Returning Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) to Cordillera, Philippines

AbstractIn 2017, the Philippine government boosted its campaign on Overseas Filipino Worker (OFW) reintegration, a set of programmes designed to aid returning Filipino labour migrants. In this paper, I examine migrant reintegration through the case of returned migrants to the province of Benguet, Philippines. Rather than use “sustainability of return” as main focus of assessment, I foreground instead the historical geographies undergirding the current reiteration of this migration policy. By doing so, I demonstrate how the “gambling” practices of returned migrants can be read as not an easy acquiescence to the neoliberal imperative for self‐entrepreneurship encouraged by the Philippine state. In highlighting gambling as an embodied strategy emerging from and through imperial histories, I argue that migrant reintegration gets revealed as rehearsal of certain colonial logics that have oriented certain peoples to the labour of serial risk taking for survival. Close attention to return migrants’ gambling practices raises urgent questions regarding the relentless push for entrepreneurship as development solution.

First Record of the Goby Lentipes armatus Sakai and Nakamura, 1979 (Teleostei: Gobiidae) in the Amburayan River in Benguet, Luzon Island, Philippines

A species of goby, Lentipes armatus Sakai and Nakamura 1979, described as endemic to the Ryukyu Islands in Japan was recently discovered in the Amburayan River in Benguet, Luzon Island, Philippines. Lentipes armatus has been identified based on photographic and actual specimens from landed catch surveys in Atok, Kapangan, and Kibungan in the Province of Benguet. Morphological features, morphometric characters, and meristic counts of the collected specimens of the local population match those reported in the Ryukyu Islands in Japan. Moreover, genetic studies of the species confirmed its identification as L. armatus. Samples for the Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) analysis and identification of this species were collected from the Amburayan River traversing the Municipalities of Atok, Kapangan, and Kibungan in the Province of Benguet. Therefore, the specimen described herein constitutes the first record of the species in the Cordillera. Furthermore, the occurrence of the L. armatus in the Amburayan River in the Cordillera, northern part of the Philippines, suggests its possible range expansion. The first record of the L. armatus in the Philippines was reported from the Taguibao River upstream of Sitio Bongodman (proper), in the east end of Ancicala, Province of Agusan del Norte, Mindanao Island. With this, it may also propose that the L. armatus is an indigenous fish species in the country, particularly thriving in the Amburayan River, Benguet and Taguibao River, Agusan del Norte, Philippines.

Low - Cost Artificial Potato for Impact Force and Vibration Measurements

Instrumented devices (ID) are useful for quantifying impact and vibration forces in postharvest supply chains of horticultural crops. In this study, a low-cost ID was developed capable of measuring impact force (G) and vibration. The ID was composed of an Adafruit Feather Adalogger microcontroller fitted with a triaxial accelerometer (± 200G range) shield and real-time clock stored time-stamped impact data in flash memory. A 3.7-volt lithium polymer battery served as the power source. The ID was encased in a semi-ellipsoidal shell fabricated from 3D-printed thermoplastic urethane (TPU95A) filament; the shell was printed at 25% fill density. The device weighed 80 g, which is representative of a medium-sized potato tuber. Drop tests showed a high correlation (R2 = 0923) between computed and measured peak acceleration in terms of G-force. The ID was tested by placing it in bulk-loaded potato tubers brought from Buguias to La Trinidad in Benguet province. GPS data was obtained using a mobile app to map the transport route and locate extreme impact events. Mean vibration of 1.18G intensity at 14Hz frequency was recorded throughout the 4-hour trip. Impact forces ranging from 4.6G to 6.61G were measured at certain points during transport. The device was assembled from commercially-available microcontrollers, sensors and other electronic components; total cost of fabrication was 94-98% less than comparable devices available in the market

Occurrence and Habitat Use of Non-native Small Mammals in Upland Urban-Forest Environment in Northern Philippines

In the Philippines, few researches have been conducted about small mammals in urban areas at high elevation, where forests remain and non-native pest species can proliferate. Previous studies in Baguio City, Benguet Province reported three non-native species. This study extended these prior surveys by sampling in 13 localities, employing standard trapping method to document the distribution of species in an urban-forest setting. In 4,711 trap nights, 94 individuals were captured, consisting of four non-native species: Rattus exulans, Rattus tanezumi, Mus musculus, and Suncus murinus. Analysis of occurrence and relative abundance of species showed that small mammal distribution varied among the habitats, and appeared that variation may have been related to differences in vegetation structure or a habitat’s disturbance level. Rattus tanezumi was the most widespread, being especially common in backyard farms and in the public market. Suncus murinus was also widespread but less abundant than R. tanezumi. Rattus exulans was uncommon and restricted to certain area of a given habitat, particularly preferring weed-dominated areas. These suggest that non-native species are common and widespread in urban-forest setting but with apparent habitat preferences. The non-detection of native species is notable, suggesting that thorough studies can be done in the future.

Diffusing Entrepreneurial Innovation and Tourism: An Empirical Evidence of Permaculture

Entrepreneurial innovation and tourism are essential factors in the economic growth of a rural agrarian area. This paper's concept is from Schumpeterian creative destructions' philosophical idea to shift rural communities' mentality from the product-based economy to diverse tourism entrepreneurship. In achieving and sustaining the development of permaculture as a platform for rural agritourism, the social capital theory of collectivism was employed to foster the development that would deliver socio-cultural, environmental, and economic benefits to all stakeholders in the community. This paper employed a descriptive research design to analyze the diffusion of entrepreneurial innovation and tourism systematically; also, to interpret the community's attitude towards the diffusion of permaculture for agritourism. Furthermore, interviews were conducted with the key informant group among the women organization. The paper subjected its participants’ through a non-probability sampling method using cluster sampling in the three barangays of the municipality of Bokod, Province of Benguet. The study results show that the respondents were willing to accept the permaculture for tourism and were willing to commit time to develop and manage the Permaculture project. They were motivated to accept and to participate in the project because they knew the values and benefits that permaculture would bring to the community. Also, while answering contingency valuation questions, the respondent thought about the value and benefits the project would bring. This study will enable communities to develop agritourism through permaculture landscapes in the rural community and, help policymakers in planning sustainable projects to support the community in entrepreneurial innovation. 

Monitoring of Land Use and Land Cover Changes in Mt. Pulag National Park Using Landsat and Sentinel Imageries

The degree of land use and land cover (LULC) conversion of Mt. Pulag National Park (MPNP), Benguet Province, Philippines, from 1990–2020 was assessed to provide valuable information for land resource management strategies. The increasing demand for vegetable farming threatens the park with further degradation. The magnitude of changes in the LULC of MPNP was determined using Landsat 5 for 1990–2010 and Sentinel-2 for 2020. The FLAASH (Fast Line-ofsight Atmospheric Analysis of Hypercubes) algorithm was performed to enhance the reflectance of the satellite images before data analysis. The maximum likelihood classification (MLC) was used to classify the MPNP into five LULC changes: agricultural lands, barren lands, built-up areas, forest lands, and grasslands with areal percentage cover of 15.88, 0.26, 1.34, 80.51, and 2.01%, respectively, in 2020, and overall accuracy of 90.58%. The LULC percentage of change from 1990–2020 showed that agricultural areas increased by 8.96%, barren lands decreased by 2.14%, built-up areas increased by 1.02%, forest lands decreased by 8.35%, and grasslands increased by 0.51%. The results showed that the increasing area of human-induced LULC class such as the agriculture lands and built-up areas is the primary cause of forest land loss. However, the barren lands undergoing natural regeneration contribute to the gain of the forest area. Therefore, the LULC conversion pattern serves as a warning that the park will continue to lose a significant portion of the forest due to land conversion if no intervention is done.

Identification and diversity assessment of cyanobacterial communities from some mine tailing sites in Benguet Province, Philippines using isolation-dependent and isolation-independent methods

Cyanobacteria are a group of diverse prokaryotes that are capable of oxygenic photosynthesis. They are ubiquitous in nature and have been reported to survive in extreme environments. This study aimed to identify and assess the diversity of the cyanobacteria present in some mine tailing sites in the towns of Itogon and Tuba, in Benguet Province, Philippines using isolation-dependent and isolation-independent methods. Analysis of the water and sediment samples from the mine tailing sites (designated as Acu, Ampu, TSF1 and TSF3) showed higher metal concentrations in the sediment samples (2930–11,500 mg/kg dry weight Ca, 10–34 mg/kg dry weight Cr, 83–6500 mg/kg dry weight Cu, 6–172 mg/kg dry weight Pb, 8310–32,600 mg/kg dry weight Mg, 640–3400 mg/kg dry weight K, 43–144 mg/kg dry weight Zn), which were then processed for cyanobacterial enrichment. Identification of cyanobacteria was performed using the conventional isolation-dependent method for the characterization of microorganisms, 16S rRNA gene sequencing, and isolation-independent 16S rRNA metabarcoding analysis. Both approaches revealed that Arthronema africanum (1.98–60.1%) and Leptolyngbya spp. (39.9–97.0%) of the Pseudoanabaenales dominated the cyanobacterial composition in all sites. The isolation-dependent method identified most of the dominant taxa such as Arthronema africanum, Leptolyngbya spp. and Calothrix spp. Nodosilinea spp. was also confirmed to be part of the cyanobacterial community through this method. Unicellular cyanobacteria such as Chroococcales and Synechococcales were also observed. However, they were not fully identified at lower taxonomic levels in both methods, especially Chroococcales. On the other hand, the isolation-independent method recovered other taxa in selected sites such as Calothrix (0.002–0.022%), Halomicronema (0.01%), Nostoc (0.006–0.03%), Phormidium (0.007–14.1%), Planktothrix (0.36%), Pseudoanabaena (0.02–0.6%), Acaryochloris (0.006%), and Thermosynechococcus (0.02–4.7%). Metabarcoding revealed that samples from small-scale mine tailing ponds of Acu and Ampu, and the inactive pond of the large scale mining site, TSF1, had higher species diversity and evenness as compared to its active pond, TSF3, based on Shannon and Simpson indices. However, TSF1 and TSF3 of the large-scale mine tailings had higher species richness than Acu and Ampu of small-scale mining based on Chao index. Altogether, this study provided an inventory of cyanobacteria that can survive even in extreme metal conditions giving insights to their future applications, particularly, in bioremediation.