Available Water Supply Research Articles

Fire, Water, and Signal Processing: Researchers are turning to signal processing to help them address challenges posed by two of the planet’s fundamental forces [Special Reports

Fire and water, two of nature’s basic forces, are each capable of sustaining or destroying life and property. Research projects in California and Hawaii are, respectively, helping displaced families cope with devasting wildfires, and investigating a way to increase water supply availability on isolated islands. Both projects are relying on signal processing to help them meet their goals.

Analisis Potensi Pencemaran Air Tanah Di Sekitar TPA Kebon Kongok Dengan Uji MPN Bakteri Coliform.

Water is an essential material in life, water is needed by living things, especially as drinking water. There are many factors that hinder or trigger the availability of clean water to decrease. One of these factors is human activities that can cause problems for the availability of clean water supply for healthy consumption of the community. One of these factors is the existence of a Final Disposal Site (TPA). The final disposal site (TPA) in West Lombok is the Kebon Kongok TPA. This research is a descriptive analytic study. This research was conducted at the Health Testing and Calibration Laboratory Center (BLKPK) of West Nusa Tenggara Province. Well water samples are taken directly at the location, then taken to the laboratory for examination in order to obtain primary data. Sample measurement was carried out using the MPN (Most Probable Number) method which was carried out at the West Nusa Tenggara BLKPK laboratory. Variety II: 5 x 10 ml, 5 x 1 ml, 5 x 0.1 ml. Variety 2 is used for specimens that have not been processed or are thought to have a high germ count. There were 12 samples of well water tested and all of them were positive for coliform bacteria. The number of Coliform bacteria found in the test samples varied. The highest number of bacteria was found in sample 1, which contained Coliform 5400/100 ml of water. This happens because the distance of sample 1 well is only 10 meters from the leachate or leachate waste collection point. All samples of well water tested were already at the threshold of clean water so they were not fit for consumption.

CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANIZATION AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT, A STUDY OF ENUGU NORTH SENATORIAL DISTRICT OF ENUGU STATE. NIGERIA (2007-2019)

Civil society organization and community development A study of Enugu north senatorial district of Enugu State (2007-2019). This study adopted three specific objectives: to ascertain the contributions of civil society organization to community road infrastructural development, to establish the linkage between civil society interventions and availability of potable water supply, and to examine the effect of civil society organizations activities in the improvement of community primary healthcare in Enugu North Senatorial District, Diffusion of innovation theory is the theoretical framework of analysis. Survey design utilized with population of 1,660,000 and sample size of 400. Data generated from primary and secondary sources. Descriptive statistics were used for data analysis and hypotheses were tested with chi-square with the aid of SPSS. The major findings are; civil society organization does contribute positively to community road infrastructural development, there is linkage between civil society organization and availability of potable water supply in Enugu north senatorial district and civil society organization’s activities in Enugu north senatorial district did improve community primary healthcare significantly in Enugu north senatorial district. This study concludes that the citizens and other stakeholders are enjoined to advance the course of CSO’s activities towards community development for the betterment of the communities, states and the society at large. It was recommended that public sector should make enabling laws that will guarantee further engagement of various CSOs as development driver of the state and government should sensitize the populace to be actively involved in most CSO’s programmes.

Climate change impact on Lake Tana water storage, Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia

Temperature and precipitation trend fluctuations influence the components of the hydrological cycle and the availability of water supplies and result shift in the balance of lake water (lake level). Lake Tana is one of the water resources potential providing many services and threatened by human-induced and natural factors in Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia. So assessing the impacts of climate change on this water resource is a primary activity for water resource managers, researchers, and stakeholders to understand its potential for the water resource. This study was therefore conducted to examine the implications of the influence of climate change on the water balance of Lake Tana (water level) using potential simulated climate production downscaled by a regional CORDEX climate model powered by GCM-RCM ensembles under the Eastern Africa domain CIMP5 archive (AFR44) and RCP scenarios (RCP4.5, and RCP8.5) for future climate data prediction. Quantile mapping has been used to correct temperature biases, and power transformation was applied for rainfall correction. The performance of the HBV model was evaluated through calibration and validation using objective functions (relative volume error (RVE), Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) and provide RVE of 3.7%, −1.27%, 1.05%, −0.72%, 8.9% and −0.68 during calibration and RVE of −1.5%, 6.93%, −3.04%,8.796%, −5.89% and 8.5% during validation for Gumara, Kiltie, Koga, Gilgel Abay, Megech and Rib respectively. While the model provided NS of 0.79, 0.63, 0.72, 0.803, 0.68 and 0.797 during calibration and NSE of 0.8, 0.64, 0.7, 0.82, 0.801 and 0.82 during validation for Gumara, Kiltie, Koga, Gilgel Abay, Megech, and Rib respectively. The simulated Lake level showed adequate agreement to the observed with NS and RVE of 0.7 and 6.44% respectively. The result showed that lake evaporation and rainfall increase for all future scenarios. The ungauged surface inflow is also increased shortly scenarios while gauged surface inflow increased for RCP4.5 (the 2070s) and RCP8.5 (2040s) and decreased for RCP4.5 (2040s) and RCP8.5 (2070s). The decrease in gauged surface water inflow is due to a decrease in inflow for Gilgel Abay, Koga and Gumara gauged catchments. The results showed that the Lake storage will decrease in all future scenarios of all-time horizons. As the study's revealed climate model minimized the level of uncertainty, especially with the use of more RCMs than GCMs, future studies should therefore use more than one regional climate model and also use fine resolution data like (CMIP 6).

Multi-objective optimization-based reactive nitrogen transport modeling for the water-environment-agriculture nexus in a basin-scale coastal aquifer

The quantification of trade-offs between social-economic and environmental effects is of great importance, especially in the semi-arid coastal areas with highly developed agriculture. The study presents an integrated multi-objective simulation-optimization (S-O) framework to evaluate the basin-scale water-environment-agriculture (WEA) nexus. First, the variable-density groundwater model (SEAWAT) is coupled to the reactive transport model (RT3D) for the first attempt to simulate the environmental effects subject to seawater intrusion (SWI) and nitrate pollution (NP). Then, the surrogate assisted multi-objective optimization algorithm is utilized to investigate the trade-offs between the net agricultural benefits and extents of SWI and NP while considering the water supply, food security, and land availability simultaneously. The S-O modeling methodology is applied to the Dagu River Basin (DRB), a typical SWI region with intensive agricultural irrigation in China. It is shown that the three-objective space based on Pareto-optimal front can be achieved by optimizing planting area in the irrigation districts, indicating the optimal evolution of the WEA nexus system. The Pareto-optimal solutions generated by multi-objective S-O model are more realistic and pragmatic, avoiding the decision bias that may often lead to cognitive myopia caused by the low-dimensional objectives. Although the net agricultural benefits in Pareto-optimal solutions are declined to some extent, the environmental objectives (the extents of SWI and NP) are improved compared to those in the pre-optimized scheme. Therefore, the proposed multi-objective S-O framework can be applied to the WEA nexus in the river basin with intensive agriculture development, which is significant to implement the integrated management of water, food, and environment, especially for the semi-arid coastal aquifers.

Medicine Storage and Dispensing Facilities in Public Healthcare Pharmacies of Puducherry, India.

BackgroundLarge amounts of medicines are wasted during procurement, storage, distribution, and utilization. Proper procurement, storage, dispensing, and documentation of medicines are important aspects of pharmacy management. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Indian Pharmaceutical Association (IPA) have developed guidelines for the storage and dispensing of medicines by pharmacists. This study was conducted to assess the storage and dispensing facilities of medicines in public healthcare pharmacies of Puducherry province in south India.MethodologyA one-time survey was conducted in 10 public healthcare pharmacies by filling the checklist which was prepared based on the WHO and IPA guidelines.ResultsFacilities such as adequate surface area, storage area, reception area, and availability of water supply in dispensing area were available in 90% of surveyed pharmacies. The most common system used for the arrangement of medicines was alphabetical order (70%). In 80% of pharmacies, a sufficient number of shelves was available for storage of medicine, and in 90% of pharmacies, shelves were properly labeled. None of the pharmacies had separate storage facilities for expired medicines and narcotic drugs.ConclusionsIn Puducherry, pharmacy services are provided by qualified and experienced pharmacists. Although most of the surveyed pharmacies had all the required infrastructure and equipment facilities, few pharmacies need to improve their facilities to promote good drug-dispensing practices.

The Design of a Mobile Phone-Based Remote-Control Application to Submersible Motor for Effective Water Supply

In the last few decades, several monitoring systems integrated with water level detection have been the major research focus. Production boost and its sustainability depend mainly on sustainable water supply, measuring water level, and avoiding waste of water is an essential task for all stakeholders. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to design and implement a mobile phone-based remote control. This will be applied to control the operation of a submersible motor in a water tank. The water level in the tank is detected and the device remotely turns the motor pump on/off. The design process is accomplished by developing an android application that works on GSM technology to manage the filling of water tank. An AT89C51 microcontroller is used for the desired programming. At the transmitting end, sensor is used for level detection and GSM module is used to send the information to user. According to this information, user controls the on/off operation of the pump. A SIM card is required for its operation and it works on attention (AT) commands. After the design and implementation of the device, the test results showed that all features of the device worked properly, and the device functions exactly as expected. More significantly, the paper has shown that ultrasonic sensors can be used to determine the level of water in a water tank and a GSM module can be used to control a submersible pump. The design and implementation of this device can help to reduce waste of time and power. Ultimately, it avoids water wastage thereby ensuring availability, conservation, and sustainability of water supply.

Healthcare Workers' Compliance With Standard Precautions and Associated Factors in Bahir Dar Town, Ethiopia.

Background:According to the literature analysis, the majority of the studies focused primarily on public health institutions. Although assessing the compliance of healthcare workers in private and public institutions would give comprehensive evidence on existing problems and appropriate prevention method, as a result, research on adherence to standard precautions are still required. Rely on existing research, to the best of the investigator’s knowledge, compliance with standard precautions in hospitals of Bahir Dar town has not been assessed. Therefore, this study will contribute to narrowing these gaps and determining the scope of problems with standard precautions.Methods:An institution-based cross-sectional study design was conducted among 442 healthcare workers working in hospitals from June 10 to 30, 2021. A stratified random sampling technique was employed to select the study participants. Pre-tested and structured questionnaires and an observational checklist were used to collect the required data. The data were entered into EpiData and analyzed using SPSS version 22. Bivariate and multivariable analyses were used to assess the association between independent and outcome variables. Odd ratios at 95% CI were used to measure the strength of the association between the outcome and explanatory variables. Finally, a P-value of <.05 was considered as a cut-off point for statistical significance.Results:Of the 442 healthcare workers who participated in the study, 41% were compliant with standard precautions. Furthermore, 68.1% and 51.8% of the respondents had good knowledge and a positive attitude toward infection prevention, respectively. Consistent water supply availability (AOR = 1.92 and 95% CI = 1.63, 6.27), and access to infection prevention guidelines (AOR = 1.73 and 95% CI = 1.08, 2.77), and availability of personal protective equipment (AOR = 2.32 and 95% CI = 1.35, 3.98) were some of the factors significantly associated with health care workers’ compliance.Conclusions:The current study found that only about two-fifths of the healthcare workers complied with standard precautions. The study suggests that there is a significant risk of developing an infection. Therefore, the concerned organizations; Bahir Dar Zonal Health Office, and respective sectors including Amhara Regional Health Office and the Federal Ministry of Health must take appropriate measures to improve the implementation of safety practices.

Potential of rainwater harvesting (RWH) to overcome the problem of water scarcity at the airports: a case study in I Gusti Ngurah Rai Airport, Bali

Indonesian airport in general relies dominantly on the surface and underground water to fulfil its water demand. Although groundwater systems are generally more resilient to climate change than surface water sources, their overuse might damage those water systems. One alternative to overcome this problem is rainwater harvesting (RWH) which could be implemented to increase the availability of raw water supply. However, in Indonesia, the study of the potential of RWH at a regional scale is still limited, so it does not provide sufficient information for practical application. Therefore, as the objective, this research will utilize a simulation analysis method to calculate the volume of rainfall storage, water requirements and reliability levels at I Gusti Ngurah Rai Airport regarding variations of the catchment area. This scheme would be applied not only during the dry and rainy seasons but also during the El Nino event. Moreover, the rainfall return periods would be determined to define the potential size of a rainwater harvesting system yearly. As a result, RWH at I Gusti Ngurah Rai Airport has the potential to substitute the surface water (PDAM) and groundwater usage either fully or partially depends on the season and water catchment area.

A trade-off balance among urban water infrastructure improvements and financial management to achieve water sustainability

ABSTRACT Rapidly growing population, unplanned urbanization, aging and lack of infrastructure, and climate change inhibit communities meeting the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) related to urban water service provision. Despite planning of water infrastructure solutions, the implementation has been limited due to financial constraints and lack of evidence-based decision-making guidance. This study investigates the trade-offs and integrated actions of water infrastructure improvements and financial management to enhance water supply service and system sustainability in tandem using a case study metropolitan area in Pakistan. This study employs a System Dynamics modeling approach to support the analysis of complex feedback interactions among water system improvements and financial management in evaluating water supply coverage and availability, revenue water, and cost recovery. The findings suggest synergies/trade-offs between system augmentation/maintenance and water tariff increase for a city to co-achieve effective water services and financial sustainability in pursuit of the UN SDG 6.

Availability, coverage, and access to the potable water supply in Oyo State Nigeria

This research centered on investigating the availability, coverage, and access to potable water supply in Oyo State, Nigeria. Relevant data was sourced from the Federal Ministry of Water Resources, Abuja, and analyses were carried out using both descriptive and paired t-test methods of analyses on SPSS. It has been established that there was availability of water supply, though inadequate, and groundwater was found to be the preponderate potable water supply source. Also, the coverage to the potable water supply was found to be 27.3% while about 62.74% have access to the available potable water supply which implies that most of the sources were from the individuals’ arrangements. To avoid overexploitation of groundwater which might have great impacts on the surroundings, it has been suggested that the government should improve on the water supply through other sources especially by improving the performance level of the existing major surface water schemes. The paired-samples t-test were statistically significant where p < 0.05 (at a 95% confidence interval), indicating a statistically strong correlation between the coverage and access to potable water with a significant increase in means from (M = 27.30, SD = 16.61, N = 33) to (M = 62.74, SD = 25.36, N = 33). Therefore, access and coverage data were divided into two parts; one part for a relationship equation development while the other part for the validation by estimating the Nash-Sutcliff Efficiency (60%) and the Coefficient of Determination (88.5%); making it possible to predict access to potable water provided that information on water supply facility coverage is known. This will improve the data gathering process and also for checking whether the Sustainable Development Goal 6.1 is met specifically in this study area.

The Sustainability Prospective of Irrigation System Management in Bali and Outside of Bali

Effective and efficient water resources management is unquestionably required to meet the high demand of water to support rapid population growth and socio-economic expansion. The water supply availability is slowly decreased due to plantation land clearing, construction projects, and land-change activities in the watershed area. This study aimed to analyze the sustainability of irrigation management in Bali and outside of Bali (Bolaang Mongondow Regency, North Sulawesi). Primary and secondary data were employed in this study. In-depth interview and focus group discussion sessions conducted to collect the primary data. The literature review technique applied to gather secondary data to support the study result and discussion. We recruited the committee of subak, farmers, and stakeholders or policymakers from the Local Board of Agriculture and Public Works and Public Housing (sub-irrigation division) to participate in this study. Multi-Dimensional Scaling method employed to analyze the study data. Results revealed that the sustainability prospective of the irrigation system management in Mongondow was relatively weak, especially on the physical-ecological, infrastructure-technology, and policy-institutional dimensions. However, we noticed that the economy and social dimension of the watershed area was relatively sustainable. Contrary situations were found on Saba Watershed in Buleleng Regency, Bali Province. We found that the sustainability prospective on the physical-ecological and infrastructure-technology dimension was relatively weak. But the dimension of the economy, socio-cultural, and policy-institutional was adequately sustainable.

Assessment of sanitation service gap in urban slums for tackling COVID-19

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), has been declared as a global pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO). As the disease is highly infectious, the Global South countries are in a vulnerable situation with high urban population density and lack of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) services. The situation for the urban slum dwellers and low-income group clusters are becoming worse. Lack of health and sanitation service availability has already been an issue for them before the beginning of the pandemic. So, it is predictable that adopting this massive global pandemic is a critical challenge for them. This paper assesses the sanitation service gap in urban slums, which has become a severe challenge to tackle due to COVID-19. The study areas of this research are the Ranarmath slum and the Khema slum of Khulna city, Bangladesh. The SERVQUAL model has been used to identify the quality of sanitation service available in these informal residential settlements. The interpretation of questionnaire survey data from the two slums reveals that one slum lacks Assurance and Empathy, where the other slum lacks Tangibility and Responsiveness. However, the Tangibility, Reliability, and Responsiveness condition of both slums are flawed with the lack of latrine functionalities and services from concerned authorities. The incompatibility of the condition has been identified by evaluating the WHO's different sanitation management policy for COVID-19. The research concludes that sanitation services like handwashing facilities and water supply availability in the latrine directly related to COVID-19 prevention are indigent for these slums.

Development and Verification of the Available Number of Water Intake Days in Ungauged Local Water Source Using the SWAT Model and Flow Recession Curves

Climate change significantly affects water supply availability due to changes in the magnitude and seasonality of runoff and severe drought events. In the case of Korea, despite a high water supply ratio, more populations have continued to suffer from restricted regional water supplies. Though Korea enacted the Long-Term Comprehensive Water Resources Plan, a field survey revealed that the regional government organizations limitedly utilized their drought-related data. These limitations present a need for a system that provides a more intuitive drought review, enabling a more prompt response. Thus, this study presents a rating curve for the available number of water intake days per flow, and reviews and calibrates the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model mediators, and found that the coefficient of determination, Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE), and percent bias (PBIAS) from 2007 to 2011 were at 0.92%, 0.84%, and 7.2%, respectively, which were “very good” levels. The flow recession curve was proposed after calculating the daily long-term flow and extracted the flow recession trends during days without precipitation. In addition, the SWAT model’s flow data enables the quantitative evaluations of the number of available water intake days without precipitation because of the high hit rate when comparing the available number of water intake days with the limited water supply period near the study watershed. Thus, this study can improve drought response and water resource management plans.

Wetland Fires and Its Environmental Conditions

Today, many wetlands have been converted into agricultural, industrial, and residential areas. This conversion of land functions creates new problems for the environment and human, one of which is land fires. The results of land fires can also cause other problems that results in losses in various fields, such as human health, the economy, and other fields. The emergence of smog as a result of land fires can cause respiratory problems, disruption of the transportation system, conflicts between neighboring countries, and the others. South Sumatra Province is one of the largest contributors to the haze as a result of land fires, especially its wetlands. Ogan Ilir Regency is one of the areas in South Sumatra Province which has extensive wetlands and fires frequently occur. Fires are caused by triggering factors, one of which is natural factors such as a prolonged dry season, availability of water supply, and intensity of rainfall. This study is an analytic descriptive study that aimed to provide an overview of environmental conditions on land, the majority of which are wetlands which experienced fires in Ogan Ilir Regency in 2019. The environmental conditions studied included soil and vegetation types. The data obtained will be displayed through tables and graphs, then interpreted and analyzed descriptively. The type of data used is secondary data in the form of a report by the Regional Disaster Management Agency Ogan Ilir Regency related to land fires in OI Regency and processed using the Geographic Information System (GIS) application. The results of the analysis show that the area of land fires that mostly occurred in North Indralaya District was 382,7 hectares with a total of 144 hotspots. The burnt area was dominated by peat soil (53%) and scrub vegetation (43%).

ANALISIS DESAIN EMBUNG SEBAGAI PENGATUR SUPLAI AIR IRIGASI DENGAN MENGGUNAKAN METODE WATER BALANCE (STUDI KASUS: EMBUNG KOLAK DESA TEMPUREJO KECAMATAN WATES KABUPATEN KEDIRI)

Embung compote is a water structure that functions to distribute and ensure the availability of water supply for crops or livestock in the dry and rainy season. Located in Tempurejo Village, Wates District, Kediri Regency. Embung is a micro-sized water reservoir (reservoir) around agricultural land that is built to accommodate the amount of rainwater during the rainy season and become a supply in the dry season. The current condition in the reservoir source compote is experiencing a problem of decreasing water resources and part of the reservoir building is leaking.&#x0D; The initial step of this research is hydrological analysis to determine monthly rainfall, effective rainfall R80, effective rainfall 10 days. The results of the analysis are then used to calculate water requirements using the Water Balance method and design planning of the compote reservoir. Water Balance / Water Balance is a comparison between the available water debit and the water required for irrigation purposes.&#x0D; Based on the results of the analysis and design planning of the embung, the dimensions of the embung are 2.3 m high, round lighthouse type, 1 flushing door with a size (2.14 mx 1 m), a volume of water reservoir is 1.086.84 m3, foundation depth is 0.8 m , the volume of the foundation is 0.217 m3 which can withstand a load of 3.255 tons.

Hydrological Analysis of Municipal Source Water Availability in the Canadian Arctic Territory of Nunavut

In the Canadian Arctic, the availability of sustainable drinking water supplies is threatened by pressures such as increasing populations, climate change, and the remote geographic nature of the communities. The objective of this study was to conduct a screening level vulnerability assessment of municipal drinking water supplies in the Canadian territory of Nunavut with consideration for climate change, population growth, and infrastructure changes. A hydrological analysis of primary drinking water supply watersheds was performed to evaluate the relative vulnerability level in 24 Nunavut communities. We used a water balance model to predict annual water yield from each watershed using historical and projected future climate data. Approximately 25% of the study communities were projected to experience high vulnerability to water shortages by 2070, defined as using greater than 40% of available water from their source watershed on an annual basis. A medium level of vulnerability (using 20% – 40% of annual available water) was determined for 8% of the study communities and a moderate level for 12% (using 10% – 20% of annual available water). A low vulnerability level to 2070 (using less than 10% of annual available water) was determined for 55% of the communities. The vulnerability level was primarily influenced by source watershed size. The results of this study could be used as a component of a proactive strategy to help address water security issues in Nunavut.

Development of Environmentally Friendly Urinal Automatic System

The urinal system, with the automatic watering system (flushing), has been widely applied in several public places in Indonesia. Still, the system sometimes does not meet Indonesian habits, especially for a Muslim, as well as less environmentally friendly. For example, it is not fitted with watering facilities (flushing) to clean vital organs and consider the sufficient (not excessive) volume of water. Another essential function is monitoring the availability of water supply and the urinal itself so that it can help the maintenance with simultaneously monitor the availability. Therefore, this research aims to design an environmentally friendly urinal system. In this study, the design and development of IoT-based flushing automation systems employ HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensors, YL-83 as a detector, and ESP8266 wifi module connected to an android-based mobile phone. The urinal flushing automation system is designed with an Arduino Nano Microcontroller capable of detecting someone who will urinate and provide sufficient watering to clean it. The test results are carried out on the effectiveness of distance detection, the adequacy of water discharge, and monitoring of the availability of water. The test results are also compared with a similar type of commercial urinal system. The complete results will be described in the full paper.

PERENCANAAN PEMANFAATAN SISTEM PEMANENAN AIR HUJAN (PAH) DALAM MENDUKUNG PENERAPAN ECODRAIN DI KAMPUS B UNIVERSITAS NEGERI JAKARTA

This research is done to plan rainwater harvesting so that it can be used as an alternative water source on the campus B UNJ so it is expected to reduce groundwater use that can cause a puddle. The method used in the PAH development plan is a water balance method. This method compares the level of demand with water volume that can be accommodated or the availability of water (supply). Based on the results of the analysis, it was found that the potential for rainwater in the FIO office building A was 1773.95 m3 , FMIPA building B was 1904.62 m3 , the FIO lecture building C was 1613.21 m3 and the Ulul Albab mosque was 512.16 m3 . Potential rainwater obtained cistern PAH capacity of 200 m3 by saving water needs by 30% in building A FIO, building B FMIPA, and building C FIO. The capacity of the PAH cistern is 80 m3 by saving the water needs of the Ulul Albab mosque by 13.3%. Placement of the PAH cistern under the ground with a ground water system. Ecodrainage application by utilizing the PAH system can reduce drainage load by 0.158 m3 /second or 13.9% from rainwater runoff.

Attribution of Long-Term Evapotranspiration Trends in the Mekong River Basin with a Remote Sensing-Based Process Model

Using the Global Land Surface Satellite (GLASS) leaf area index (LAI), the actual evapotranspiration (ETa) and available water resources in the Mekong River Basin were estimated with the Remote Sensing-Based Vegetation Interface Processes Model (VIP-RS). The relative contributions of climate variables and vegetation greening to ETa were estimated with numerical experiments. The results show that the average ETa in the entire basin increased at a rate of 1.16 mm year−2 from 1980 to 2012 (36.7% of the area met the 95% significance level). Vegetation greening contributed 54.1% of the annual ETa trend, slightly higher than that of climate change. The contributions of air temperature, precipitation and the LAI were positive, whereas contributions of solar radiation and vapor pressure were negative. The effects of water supply and energy availability were equivalent on the variation of ETa throughout most of the basin, except the upper reach and downstream Mekong Delta. In the upper reach, climate warming played a critical role in the ETa variability, while the warming effect was offset by reduced solar radiation in the Mekong Delta (an energy-limited region). For the entire basin, the available water resources showed an increasing trend due to intensified precipitation; however, in downstream areas, additional pressure on available water resources is exerted due to cropland expansion with enhanced agricultural water consumption. The results provide scientific basis for practices of integrated catchment management and water resources allocation.