Auguste Comte Research Articles

The Origins of the Distinction Between the Notions of Explanation and Understanding in Philosophy of Science and History of the Nineteenth Century

A sharp distinction between the notions of explanation and understanding is more than relevant for contemporary philosophy. However, it is difficult to understand the current state and prospects of this terminological distinction without considering its origins. The author finds such origins in the field of philosophy and methodology of science (particularly, of historical science) of the nineteenth century. One cannot grasp the meaning of explanation and understanding in philosophy without considering the ordinary meanings since both notions are also actively used in the ordinary language. Hence, this paper has a twofold aim. Firstly, it investigates the meaning of explanation and understanding in everyday use. Secondly, it considers the origin of the distinction between the notions in philosophy. It is proven that the origin of the explanation in philosophy can be seen in Auguste Comte’s philosophy of science, namely in the first volume of The Course in Positive Philosophy published in 1830. There Comte introduces the notion of explanation (explication) in the context of the law of three stages, as well as the notion of positive explanation (l’explication positive) which makes positive knowledge or science different from the previous (non-scientific) stages of knowledge. As for the origin of understanding in philosophy, it is found in Droysen’s philosophy of history, namely in The Outline of the Principles of History (1858), where Droysen makes a distinction between understanding (Verstehen), which is used in history, and explanation (Erklären) that was discussed by Comte. Consequently, explanation and understanding, after being introduced to philosophy by Comte and Droysen, become the central notions of Dilthey’s well-known methodological distinction between natural sciences and humanities.Manuscript received 16.02.2020

ALGUNS PONTOS COINCIDENTES ENTRE O POSITIVISMO DE AUGUSTE COMTE E O PENSAMENTO DE DARIO VELLOZO NA REVISTA O CENÁCULO

A virada do século XIX para o XX foi um momento profícuo no campo da intelectualidade brasileira, mais precisamente na área literária que se via impregnada de muitas filosofias importadas. Majoritariamente o Positivismo de Auguste Comte ocupava esse espaço. Foi com essa filosofia que Dario Vellozo dialogou, sobretudo na sua prosa. Para além do ocultismo presente na sua vasta obra, Vellozo manteve o Positivismo em alto grau nas suas produções. O presente artigo discute alguns desses diálogos, evidenciando a filosofia francesa nos principais escritos de Dario Vellozo, na revista O Cenáculo. Este texto propõe iluminar o mosaico que era o intelectual fundador do Instituto Neo-Pitagórico.

Literature as the Route of Transmission of Buddhism into Britain

Literary transmission of a subject has been a perennial phenomenon through the mode of literature because literary works are not produced in vacuum. Authors transpire the spirit of an age by creative amalgamation of their external influences, which they absorb from their social consciousness, and their internal influences to create fictional literary images, style, themes and motifs for a work. In this manner, an author’s influence from a preceding text or social consciousness exports to the successive literary works incessantly across the temporal and spatial dimensions. To determine literature as an intermediary or channel of transmission of Buddhism into Britain, the methodology of Influence Study is applied to delineate the spread of Buddhism through literary works. The investigation aims to identify the junctures of contact between an influence or an author and an influencer or the Buddhist source of information. Since multitude of impressions are involved in the ongoing process of literary production, the Influence Study utilizes Auguste Comte’s philosophy of positivism and factual account of biographical details to verify the junctures of direct or indirect contact of the author with the Buddhist source of information via literary or extra-literary medium to map the route of interrelationships. For conclusive results, the tools of close reading and interpretive analysis are implemented by juxtaposing the texts imbibing the stylized Buddhist ideology with the teachings of Buddhism. In this connection, a few British texts such as Edwin Arnold’s the Light of Asia, Rudyard Kipling’s Kim, James Hilton’s Lost Horizon, and Aldous Huxley’s Island are scrutinized to investigate the literary transmission of Buddhism into Britain.

Victorian Sustainability in Literature and Culture, by Wendy Parkins

Reviewed by: Victorian Sustainability in Literature and Culture by Wendy Parkins Fredrik Albritton Jonsson (bio) Victorian Sustainability in Literature and Culture, by Wendy Parkins; pp. vi + 238. London and New York: Routledge, 2018, £110.00, £36.99 paper, $155.00, $47.95 paper. At first blush, the topic of Victorian sustainability may strike some readers as wildly anachronistic. After all, the term sustainable development entered into widespread circulation with Gro Harlem Brundtland's 1987 UN report "Our Common Future," that warned of long-term challenges to global and intergenerational equity, including deforestation, desertification, fossil fuel exhaustion, climate change, population pressure, and decline in biodiversity. These concerns were plainly products of a specific historical moment. And yet it would be a grave mistake to assume that worries about environmental degradation have surfaced only in recent decades. Historians and literary scholars have for some time now explored the deep roots of sustainability, preservationism, Malthusianism, and environmental utopianism. Wendy Parkins's Victorian Sustainability in Literature and Culture offers a wide-ranging and stimulating exploration of the problem of environmental degradation and its remedies during the nineteenth century. Major themes include discourses of urban pollution and sprawl; affective and spiritual bonds with animals and with the wider natural world; debates about agricultural chemistry and soil fertility; experiments in post-growth economies and simple living; and the Victorian science of climate change. According to Parkins, the Victorians were the first to contemplate "the widespread environmental despoliation wrought by industrialization" on a national and planetary scale (1). Victorian writers challenged the "instrumentalist view of the natural world" in literature "as well as in the fields of politics, economics, philosophy and agriculture" [End Page 322] (Gillen D'Arcy Wood qtd. in Parkins 2). This critique also had a constructive side, aimed at conceiving social "alternatives beyond the imaginative horizons of industrial capitalism" (33). Victorian forms of sustainability thus ranged beyond the ecological and technological realms into psychology and everyday practice. John Parham opens the anthology with an exciting essay on John Stuart Mill, which rightly stresses the radical character of Mill's famous chapter on the stationary state in Principles of Political Economy (1848). Parham places Mill's call for voluntary limits to growth in the context of his exchanges with French utopian thought, especially Auguste Comte's sociology and Joseph Fourier's communitarianism. He then traces the evolution of Mill's views forward to the 1860s, connecting stationary state economics with his interest in the Common Preservations Society and the Land Tenure Reform Association. Subsequent chapters by John Holmes, Peter Adkins, Emma Mason, Roslyn Jolly, and Mary L. Shannon explore a series of parallel projects in sustainability, springing from the same context as Mill's environmental sensibility. Holmes looks at William Morris's sprawling narrative poem "The Earthly Paradise" (1868–70), while Adkins examines the intellectual roots of Edward Carpenter's socialist experiment in simple living. Mason turns to theology to uncover what she calls the "ecology of grace" in Christina Rossetti's poetry (69). On her reading, Rossetti's The Face of the Deep (1892) articulated a radical promise of multi-species community and spiritual kinship with the nonhuman. Jolly's essay uncovers in early Victorian travelogues an ideal and practice of "slow travel" intended to counter the "speed and artificiality of modern life" (103). Shannon investigates the many meanings of the Thames in Charles Dickens's writings. She shows how the river linked country and city both as a pastoral idyll and as a conduit of pollution and waste. The second half of the volume includes contributions by Lesley Kingsley, Matthew Ingleby, Michael Shaw, Paul Young, and Dennis Denisoff, with an afterword by Gillen D'Arcy Wood. Kingsley explores the many cultural meanings of guano from high farming and popular chemistry to sanitation and social theory. Ingleby tackles incipient concerns with suburban growth through a genealogy of the term sprawl. Shaw's piece carries on the theme of urban planning by looking at Patrick Geddes's social theory from an aesthetic point of view. Young considers W. H. Hudson's The Purple Land That England Lost (1885) as an eco-romance about the environmental consequences of British global meat markets. Young also demonstrates how...

The neurosociology of Auguste Comte

This article explores the role of phrenology in the work of Auguste Comte. I begin by reviewing the historical and contemporary significance of this doctrine to show the direct lineage that exists between phrenology and what we now call cognitive neuroscience. I then demonstrate the impact of phrenology on Comte’s sociological theory and make the claim that his paradigm exemplifies what TenHouten called ‘neurosociology.’ Following this, I show how Comte’s social epistemology rejected biological reductionism and considered neurophysiology a subfield of sociology. This results in a somewhat startling assertion: Comte saw sociology as a cognitive science. After outlining Comte’s original vision for sociology as a discipline, I place Comte’s system in critical contact with 21st century neuroscience and suggest fruitful ways to move the neurosociology paradigm forward. In this I demonstrate that Comte’s vision for sociology is worth pursuing today, even while the specifics of his doctrine are not.

Organism and environment in Auguste Comte

This article focuses on Auguste Comte’s understanding of the organism–environment relationship. It makes three key claims therein: (a) Comte’s metaphysical position privileged materiality and relativized the intellect along two dimensions: one related to the biological organism, one related to the social environment; (b) this twofold materiality confounds attempts to reduce cognition to either nature or nurture, so Comte’s position has interesting parallels to the field of ‘epigenetics’, which sees the social environment as a causative factor in biology; and (c) although Comte ultimately diverged from the ‘postgenomic’ view in crucial ways, he remains a forerunner of the trend towards viewing the social and biological as entangled. Tending to these dimensions challenges the view that Comte is notable from a classical standpoint but ignorable from a contemporary one. It consequently invites renewed attention to his theoretical system.

"Italian history and the core - periphery distinction"

The article commends the very fruitful pairing of cultural and intellectual history in Axe Korner’s America in Italy. It also praises the transnational character of the history represented by the book. It then focuses on the historiographical question of studying particular countries and their historical development in terms of centres and peripheries. Using some examples from the attitudes towards Italy displayed in the mid-nineteenth century by highly influential thinkers in Britain and France (Matthew Arnold and Auguste Comte respectively) it suggests that, either such distinctions have to be abolished altogether, or, if they are employed, then Italy certainly was part of the core/centre of European and world history.

Implications of Legal Positivism of the Promotion of Children's Rights on National Law

This article discusses the influence of positivism in the development of legal science, especially in the development of Indonesian law. Through the positivism which was introduced by August Comte, the study aims to analyze the legal positivism as a strategic-political form that is needed in terms of promoting children's rights. As a result, positivism can not only be used as a medium used to help the modern process: the law there can also be used as a means to provide legal protection for the people’s, especially for the protection of children's rights.

Handwritten Marginalia and Digital Search: The Development and Early Research Results of Mill Marginalia Online

Victorian Britain’s leading philosophical empiricist and liberal theorist, John Stuart Mill left behind a significant body of unpublished writing, in the form of handwritten marginalia within the books of his personal library. Mill Marginalia Online is an international Digital Humanities collaboration between The University of Alabama and Somerville College dedicated to producing a digital edition of this material. This ongoing project’s organic development, technical approach, and present scope may serve as a useful model for future DH initiatives. Its actual content, as represented by the marks and annotations present in Mill’s personal copies of Alexis de Tocqueville’s De la Démocratie en Amérique (1835–40) and Auguste Comte’s collected works, including Cours de Philosophie Positive (1830–42) and Système de Politique Positive (1851–54), begin to suggest the intellectual significance of Mill’s marginalia for international scholarship.

Reinventing Islam, Sublating Modernity: A Conflict of Enlightenments

The present paper aims to show how the return to Islam initially conceived by Muslim reformists has not been simply a conflictual reaction to the secular ideology sustaining modernity, but rather an effort to transform Islam into a religion within modernity. It argues that this return has in fact been a major paradigm shift within the theologico-political discourse of Islamic tradition and that it is this very shift that led to the reformation of this religion. In this perspective, this study shows how the reactivation of sharia by reformist thinkers did not mean a rejection of the Islamic intellectual tradition, but it was precisely the result of the encounter between this tradition and the modern social sciences. The paper then reconstructs the dialogue between Muslim reformists and 19th-century European thinkers, dialogue which was crucial in shaping Islamic reformation. It shows to what extent reformed Islam was a response of Muslim reformers to the diagnosis of the project of modernity made by European reformist thinkers such as François Guizot or Auguste Comte. Through their confrontation, the paper develops a comparison between the theoretical backdrop of European modernity and the premises of Islamic reformation as two alternative conceptions of the Enlightenment project. By discussing Kant, Foucault, Habermas and Koselleck’s thesis on the historical and philosophical roots of the European Enlightenment, this study ultimately seeks to understand in which way the theological structure of Islam has led the project of the Islamic Enlightenment in an analogous but fairly differentiated direction.

Premodernity, Modernity, Postmodernity, and Eu-Modernity as the Four Stages of Civilizational Developmental Psychology: Comte’s Parallel Human-Civilizational Developments

In this paper, the Auguste Comte’s parallel human-civilizational developments in the early nineteenth century are broadened and updated for the twenty-first century. Comte establishes the parallel between European civilizational development as the law of three stages (the theological stage, the metaphysical stage, and the positive scientific stage) and human development (childhood, adolescence, and adulthood). He holds that each individual human develops from the stage of a devout believer in childhood as in the theological stage, to a critical metaphysician to question the abstract notions of existence in adolescence as in the metaphysical stage, and to a natural philosopher in adulthood as in the positive scientific stage. The Comte’s parallel human-civilizational developments are broadened to include collectivism-individualism, human evolution, and developmental psychology from Erikson’s psychosocial development, and are updated to include the stages after the nineteenth century. The four stages of infancy, toddlerhood, childhood, and adulthood in the proposed human development are parallel to the four stages of premodernity, modernity, postmodernity, and eu-modernity (post-postmodernity) in the proposed civilizational development. Each individual human develops from believing infancy to believe in parent as believing premodernity to believe in authoritative religion, to autonomous toddlerhood to explore as rational autonomous modernity to explore, to diverse childhood to learn diversity as diverse postmodernity to learn diversity, and to eusocial adulthood to establish eusociality by interdependent division of labor, multigenerational generativity, and intergroup generosity as eusocial eu-modernity to establish eusociality by interdependent division of labor between individualism and collectivism, multigenerational generativity for long-term wellbeing, and intergroup generosity for long-distance wellbeing. Eusocial eu-modernity is the adulthood civilization.

<em>Rouge-Brun</em> or Counter-Revolutionary? Another Look at Michel Houellebecq's Politics

Michel Houellebecq has gained a reputation for combining left-wing critiques of neo-liberal capitalism with reactionary laments at the decline of nation, religion, honest labour, and the patriarchal family. Critics thus typically declare the novelist either to be unclassifiable in political terms or to be a 'rouge-brun'. Surveying Houellebecq's novels, from Extension du domaine de la lutte (1994) to Sérotonine (2019), I argue that there is nothing unclassifiable, 'rouge', or left-wing about the author's political world-view. On the contrary, his work needs to be understood as belonging to a tradition of French counter-revolutionary thought, personified by Auguste Comte and Charles Maurras.

On Catholic Responses to Our Devastated Saeculum

On Catholic Responses to Our Devastated Saeculum Thomas Pfau Let mu begin with some remarks about the title of our Thomistic Institute symposium, "Intellectual Origins of Secularization and Catholic Intellectual Responses." To engage in speculation about origins, particularly where a phenomenon as complex as secularization is concerned, is bound to entangle us in the condition we are asked to diagnose. Thus, Alasdair MacIntyre has observed how genealogical inquiry, itself a distinctly modern endeavor, tends to "repudiate all the key features of accountability, understood in terms either of Socratic dialectic or of Augustinian confession." Implicitly, that is, a genealogical narrative about origins embraces the project of intellectual emancipation and demystification that drives David Hume's and Immanuel Kant's Enlightenment critiques of reason, and that is subsequently radicalized (and predictably turned against the Enlightenment itself) by Friedrich Nietzsche and Michel Foucault. Hence, MacIntyre notes, "the genealogical stance is dependent for its concepts and its modes of argument, for its theses and its style, upon a set of contrasts between it and that which it aspires to overcome—the extent, that is, to which it is derivative from and even parasitic upon its antagonisms … drawing its necessary sustenance from that which it professes to have discarded."1 Genealogical accounts of secularization and its putative "intellectual origins" are liable to remain beholden to a distinctly modern, secular conception of time that will alternatively take the form of a stridently progressive or an inexorably declensionist narrative. Not coincidentally, genealogical accounts of either kind first came to [End Page 29] be championed both by major proponents of the secular Enlightenment and by some of its fiercest critics. We think of William Robertson's A View of the Progress of Society in Europe from the Subversion of the Roman Empire to the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century (1769), David Hume's History of England (1754–1761), Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789), and Immanuel Kant's Conjectural Beginning of Human History and Ideas for a Universal History from a Cosmopolitan Point of View (both in 1783). Concurrently, an equivocal or outright declensionist account of history, understood as a fatal and irreversible lapse from an original state, informs Jean-Jacques Rousseau's essay On the Origin of Language (1749) and his second Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755), which are unique in this regard and present him as both one of the major progenitors of a secular modernity and one of its sharpest critics. The list of writers engaged in fashioning origin-and-progress or decline-and-fall narratives could be extended almost indefinitely, to include Lord Monboddo (James Burnett), Edmund Burke, Johann Herder, Wilhelm von Humboldt, Georg Hegel, Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Jules Michelet, Leopold von Ranke, Heinrich von Treitschke, Max Weber, Oswald Spengler, and so on. Suffice it to say, to frame our topic in terms of origins and the intellectual genre of a "genealogy" is to be implicated in a historicist conception of time that (for better or worse) bears the imprint of homo faber and to embrace what Charles Taylor has labeled modernity's "immanent frame." Whatever its particular "findings" may turn out to be, genealogical inquiry constitutes an implicitly secular undertaking, and as such, cannot elucidate the meaning of a secularity it already presupposes.2 A second set of questions arises from the invitation that we specifically attend to the intellectual origins of secularity. To be sure, any attempt to understand our present, secular condition will take the form of some intellectual account or argument. We may identify major patterns and topoi that seem palpably secular in kind and contrast them with the robustly theist metaphysics that gradually shaped Europe, the eastern Mediterranean, and [End Page 30] in time the Slavic East between the third and the tenth century. While reconstructing such patterns and motifs is indeed an intellectual activity, it does not follow that the phenomena under investigation will themselves be of an intellectual nature. Arguably the most significant case in point, and the backdrop for this paper, concerns the rise of modern entrepreneurial and financial capitalism in late-seventeenth-century England. What in time came to be known as political economy had...

Prosper Weil's Article: A Stimulating Warning

Prosper Weil's article in the American Journal of International Law first appeared in 1982 in French in the Revue Générale de Droit International Public. In France, it has probably generated less debate than in the United States. Indeed, the positions taken by this stimulating, agile, and well-written article generally accord with the doctrinal tradition that largely predominates in the land of Jean Bodin, René Descartes, and Auguste Comte, namely, legal positivism. According to this tradition, legal scholars must first focus on the technical analysis of legal norms as they are set out and, above all, practiced by the various actors in legal relations, which on the international level are states and the international judge or arbitrator. After setting out the contexts of Weil's article, I shall state two reservations to its content and then turn to its contemporary relevance.

Retraction Note: The management of educational system using three law Auguste Comte: A case of Islamic schools

The primary objective of this study is associated with the management of educational system in schools using Three Law Auguste Comte at Pesantren Tebuireng Jombang, East Java, Indonesia. Since June 2006 the Tebuireng Islamic Boarding School has been providing the Islamic education. However, in these schools, the students coming from other schools do not have Islamic education and face difficulty while taking courses. Additionally, the students of Tebuireng Islamic Boarding Schools are not familiar with traditional education, such as science-based subjects; mathematics, chemistry, physics, biology and management. Therefore, management of educational system is required in Tebuireng Islamic Boarding Schools. For this purpose, data were collected from the teachers of these schools by using a questionnaire survey. Partial Least Square (PLS)Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to analyze the data. Findings of the study revealed that all levels of education in Islamic schools (Pesantren) should provide science-based subjects rational, among others: mathematics, chemistry, physics, biology, management, etc. Moreover, there should be a balance between Islamic education and science-based education.

Problematyczność stosowania metafizyki do pozytywizmu prawniczego na przykładzie tezy o społecznym źródle prawa

The aim of this article is to present a legal positivist social source thesis in the context of classical metaphysical reflection. Author uses the method of analysing the source texts and abstracts theses that can be considered as metaphysical. Metaphysical theses divide into existential and essential. They are expressed directly by an author or possible to reconstruct. Reasoning was based on convenience that universality of metaphysics should be considered temporally. The thesis about the evolution of ways of understanding reality, along with the development of mankind, is one of the cardinal assumptions of positivism in general. Based on this historiosophical rule, August Comte draws further conclusions about a possible modern philosophy for the future. The denial of metaphysics leads to cursory, perhaps unconscious, acceptance of the theses that have already been developed in the history of philosophy. The reflections are essentially focused on the issue of ontological status of society. Its understanding determines the understanding of social facts and seems to have an impact on social source thesis. The main part of the reflection is placed in a historical context. It enables to examine some aspects that are difficult to consider nowadays. One of the conclusions is that metaphysics to which positivism opposes is dominant in 19th century philosophy, but in general only one of many schools of thought. Since there is no specific literature on that matter, author signalize problems considering them generally.

The management of educational system using three law Auguste Comte: A case of Islamic schools

The management of educational system using three law Auguste Comte: A case of Islamic schools

PENSANDO SOBRE A INFLUÊNCIA DA ESTÉTICA POSITIVISTA NA POÉTICA DE GENERINO DOS SANTOS

Este artigo tem como objetivo trazer e discutir algumas produções poéticas de Generino dos Santos (1849- 1877) sob a ótica da filosofia positivista proposta por Auguste Comte, da qual foi seguidor confesso. Entretanto, inserida na imensa obra filosófica e política que Comte deixa de legado para toda uma civilização, estava a sua estética, ou: Aptitude Esthétique du Positivisme. É a partir desses pensamentos do filósofo francês que discutirei alguns poemas do escritor citado. Para tal, considero uma produção dividida entre eclética e plural: a primeira, sumariamente, seria a submissão da escrita poética à diversidade literária daquele período, sem que o literário assumisse de fato a primazia, sem que fosse ele o condutor dessa incorporação da diversidade de temas, de vocabulários e até de conceitos (filosófico e científicos). Por pluralidade, ao contrário, entendo justamente a submissão dessa diversidade de elementos não-literários ao literário, de modo que todo elemento extra-literário, quando trazido ao plano literário passa a funcionar diversamente do que faz quando se encontra em seu contexto original.

Rendering Sociology. On the Utopian Positivism of Harriet Martineau and the ‘Mumbo Jumbo Club’

Among the Victorians who contributed to British sociology were the social theorist Harriet Martineau and a peculiar trio of Oxford students called the ‘Mumbo Jumbo club’. Martineau published an English ‘condensation’ of Auguste Comte’s Cours de philosophie positive (1830–42), which introduced sociology to English readers. While under the watchful eye of the Oxford don Richard Congreve, Mumbo Jumbo read Martineau’s study with great enthusiasm, and it shaped their course as first-generation sociologists. Using an intellectual history method, this essay argues that as the first female British sociologist, Martineau pioneered an abolitionist-feminist approach to the discipline in such works as Society in America (1837). Meanwhile, on leaving Oxford, Mumbo Jumbo became the first British Positivist Society members. They not only translated but acted on the ideas in Comte’s Systeme de politique positive (1851–4), which their leader, Congreve, described as the ‘definitive construction’ of sociology. Whereas Martineau’s work offered an abolitionist-feminist framework for sociology, the Mumbo Jumbo trio — J.H. Bridges, E.S. Beesly, and Frederic Harrison — developed biologic-historical, socio-political, and urban-regional strands of sociological thinking respectively. While examining these sociologists’ lives and complementary methods, this essay argues that theirs was a distinctly utopian if critical, imaginative, and optimistic sociology, just as some people suggested was the discipline at the founding meetings of the British Sociological Society. Thus, the works of Martineau and Mumbo Jumbo, from compatible Comtean perspectives, aimed to transform thoughts and feelings into social actions for resolving societal issues and personal troubles.

Positive Paradigm As The Barrier of Art Creativity Interpretation

In the modern era, during the end of 17 century, appears empiric paradigm in the philosophy field. This paradigm emerges due to the critic towards mythical social thought. The next step appears positivism thought by Auguste Comte in 1830, which stated that Sociology based on science analogy that can be learned in the form of empiric data with exact calculation; out of this is rated as not scientific. The education field also trails the modern thought tradition, along with Comte’s positivistic thought. This modern era eventually has been opposed by postmodern philosophers. The frailties in the modern era are criticized by the appearance of the postmodern paradigm. Positivistic thought, in reality, could not reveal study beyond human and society, because this study is strong, and can only reach the ontologic stage, in substance of the object. While this could not be revealed because its level involves human and society’s way of thinking, primordial, tradition, and historical aspects, this study focuses on the weaknesses of positivistic research. Then it will present post-positivistic-postmodern research through Hermeneutika and Foucauldian Genealogy research.