Assertiveness Training Program Research Articles

The Cultural Context: A Factor in Assertiveness Training with Mainland Puerto Rican Women

This study examined the inclusion of a cultural component in an assertiveness training program. Participants ( n = 40) were low income Puerto Rican women. There were four training groups divided up according to educational level. In addition, there was a no-training group consisting of Puerto Rican women who did not receive assertiveness training. Ten sessions of an hour and a half each were conducted over a period of 10 weeks. The training program was evaluated using a translation of the Adult Self-Expression Scale (Cay, Hollandsworth, & Galassi, 1975) as a pre/post program measure of assertiveness; evaluation forms completed by recipients at the close of each session were also used for evaluation purposes. Assertiveness scores of the training group were significantly higher than those of the no-training group. In addition, this effect was true regardless of level of education. Session-by-session evaluation forms suggested that cultural context may be an important mediator of assertive behavior. Limitations of the study are discussed, and it is recommended that future research examine the role of cultural factors in assertiveness training.

A Research Practicum: Undergraduates as Assistants in Psychological Research

Two recent surveys highlight the fact that participation in research is becoming increasingly popular as a means of teaching research methodology in the undergraduate curriculum. This article describes a project that combined a research practicum for 17 undergraduates with the implementation and evaluation of an assertiveness training program for physically disabled college students. A follow-up of students' post-baccalaureate activities revealed that the majority were indeed using skills that they had learned in the project. Analyses of students' course evaluations revealed knowledge gained that would not have been obtained from more traditional courses in methodology or statistics. Interrater reliability scores (r =. 98 and r =. 97) as well as other variables demonstrated that undergraduates are capable of functioning as competent and dedicated research assistants. A cost/benefit analysis indicated that benefits outweighed the costs of the project.

Assertiveness training and human communication processes

In spite of the wealth of descriptions of assertive behavior, there is no consensus either on a precise definition or on a theoretical model of assertiveness. However, as there is a certain unanimity on the view that assertive behavior should lead to more satisfying, interpersonal relationships for all persons involved, it could be helpful to put the concept of assertiveness in the context of adequate, human communication and its beneficial effects. After a review of the principal controversies concerning the nature of assertive behavior and the content of assertiveness training programs, the authors present the main components of a theoretical model of communication, and consider certain of its implications for the field of assertiveness. The use of a model of communication to define assertiveness would help to develop some hypotheses concerning the function and importance of different aspects of assertive behavior in interpersonal relationships, and give more coherence to the practice of assertiveness training.

Effects of situational demand in the role-play assessment of assertive behavior

Assertive and nonassertive subjects role played responses to interpersonal situations of known response difficulty in which various types of assertions were appropriate to evaluate the interactive effects of demand and difficulty on assertive performance. Subjects responded as they normally would (low demand) and as if they had just finished an extensive assertive training program (high demand). Role-play data, rated for overall assertion, revealed that (a) subjects were more assertive under high than low-demand; (b) assertive performance varied with situational difficulty; and (c) self-reports of assertive ability predicted behavior only when role-play situations were easy or demand low, and high demand had preceded low demand. It was concluded that assertive performance is strongly influenced by situational and cognitive variables, that self-reports predict behavior only in specific assessment circumstances, and that role plays tend to measure maximal, rather than typical, performance. These findings are discussed in terms of their implications concerning the validity of role-play assessment procedures.

Reactivity of Measures of Self-efficacy in Tasks Involving Assertiveness

Self-efficacy is normally measured by a pencil-and-paper test, and two separate studies involving snake phobics have indicated that this test does not have significant reactive effects on related behaviour. Two experiments are reported which examine the possibilities of measurement reactivity with a different type of behaviour, the social skill of assertiveness. In the first experiment, 46 non-assertive female students served as subjects. Measuring efficacy was shown to have reactive effects on later behaviour. These reactive effects showed consistent changes during the course of an assertiveness training programme, with the effect of measurement being initially to enhance performance and later to produce slight decrements. A second experiment examined the possibility that this change was related to differing levels of assertiveness. Sixty female students of varying levels of assertiveness participated in this study; again, reactive effects occurred, but they were not related to level of assertiveness. The question of possible therapeutic advantages and disadvantages of using efficacy measures at various points during therapy was raised.

Methodological adaptations in assertiveness training programs designed for the blind.

The current research applies an “alternative” social skills training package with revisions in assertiveness for congenital and adventitious blind rehabilitation students. A series of 5 units covering philosophic concepts of blindness and practical techniques for an assertive repertoire comprised 2 assertiveness courses, each lasting 4 weeks ( Ns = 7, 6). Methodological revisions mainly included more auditory and gestural manipulations.

Self-efficacy and behaviour as predictors of subsequent behaviour in an assertiveness training programme

Bandura and his colleagues have offered evidence that self-efficacy measures are more accurate predictors of maintenance of behaviour change than are behavioural measures. The present article argues that their evidence is flawed by the use of inappropriate statistical techniques, and attempts to replicate these findings using alternative statistical methods. Forty-six female students participated in an Assertiveness Training Programme which ran for 6 weeks, with a follow-up 3 months later. At each session they made efficacy predictions about their performance in specific situations, and then role-played those situations. Efficacy and behavioural measures were compared as predictors of later behaviour, and it was shown that, contrary to Bandura's findings, efficacy measures were significantly less accurate than behaviours in predicting later behaviour. This result indicates that, although self-efficacy theory is a useful framework for understanding behaviour change, it may be inappropriate in some situations to rely entirely upon efficacy predictions.

Assertiveness Training with Outpatients: The Effectiveness of Skill and Cognitive Procedures

Forty-four community mental health outpatients participated in an assertiveness training program in which three treatment methods were compared. Skill training aimed at training specific assertive responses by means of instruction, modeling, behavioral rehearsal, feedback, and homework assignments. Cognitive training focused on altering the irrational cognitions which theoretically inhibit the expression of assertive responses. A third group (Cognitive–Skill) received both forms of training simultaneously, and a fourth group (Waiting List) was included as a control. A behavioral roleplaying test (B.R.P.T.) and the Social Fear Scale were administered prior to and immediately following four individual training sessions occurring at one week intervals for all three treatment groups. Analyses of covariance of assertive content ratings made by independent judges for B.R.P.T. responses revealed that all three treatment groups evidenced significantly more assertive and effective responses on both refusal and behavior change situations when compared to the Waiting List control. Analyses of paralinguistic dimensions of the B.R.P.T. revealed training generally to be more successful for the Skill group.

Variations in children's assertiveness due to trainer asertion level

The influence of the trainer's personal assertiveness on the outcome of an assertiveness training program for children was evaluated. Nine paraprofessional trainers were rated either high or low in assertiveness using behavioral, self-report, and supervisors'ratings of assertiveness. A twelve-week assertion training intervention program was conducted for 74 fourth and fifth grade children. Results indicated that training by highly assertive trainers significantly increased the child subject's trust and liking of the group and perceptions of his/her behavioral changes. The assertiveness of subjects trained by highly assertive trainers was significantly higher immediately following treatment and at one year. However, subjects trained by trainers judged less assertive showed significantly higher scores on the interpersonal problem-solving test and the Group Decision Task immediately following treatment. The results are discussed in terms of advantages and disadvantages of directly modeling assertive behaviors and the importance of distinguishing the quality of alternatives generated on the interpersonal problem-solving tasks involving assertiveness.

A self-report measure of assertiveness in young adolescents

Reported a self-report measure of adolescents' assertiveness. Items for this scale were presented to young adolescents (N = 78) and subsequently were subjected to a factor analysis that revealed factors of submissiveness, aggressiveness, and assertiveness. Teacher ratings and behavioral responses during a role-play test also were obtained and provide additional validational evidence in support of the scale. After the validational study, a small assertiveness training program was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of standard treatment procedures with this population. Results indicated that training effects were obtained and that the effects generalized to situations that had not been employed during training.

Evaluation of An Assertiveness Training Program in a Maximum Security Correctinal Setting

Evaluation of An Assertiveness Training Program in a Maximum Security Correctinal Setting

Efficacy of a money deposit contingency on clinical outpatients' attendance and participation in assertive training

Clinical outpatients in an ongoing assertive training program were randomly assigned to a money deposit or no deposit condition. Subjects in the deposit condition maintained high attendance (98%), participated in more self-rating exercises during sessions (98%) and completed more extra session self-monitoring logs (98%). Clients who were not subject to the financial contingency attended less frequently (70%), completed fewer in-session rating exercises when they attended (74%) and returned fewer extra session logs (53%). Use of a money deposit is recommended to facilitate clinical research in applied outpatient settings.

Influence of scheduling variations on the effectiveness of a group assertion-training program for women.

Influence of scheduling variations on the effectiveness of a group assertion-training program for women.

Behavioral measures of assertiveness: A comparison of audio and audiovisual coding of structured interactions

This study assessed the relative utility of audio and audiovisually recorded versions of structured interactions from the Behavioral Assertiveness Test-Revised. The subjects were 28 adult male psychiatric patients who participated in an assertion training program. The systems were evaluated on a number of dimensions including reliability, comparability, sensitivity to change, concurrent and discriminant validity, and cost. The two systems were found to be approximately equally reliable, to produce comparable results on measures that were assessed by both systems, and to be approximately equally sensitive to change. The main advantage of the audiovisual system was the inclusion of a measure of eye contact — which proved to be one of the most valid component behaviors assessed. Potential users need to weigh the additional information obtained from this measure against the substantially greater cost of the audiovisual system. It was concluded that both systems could be simplified, and limitations of the study were noted.

A Group Assertive Training Program for Elementary Schoolchildren

Utilizing two treatment and two control groups, 80 fourth grade elementary schoolchildren participated in an assertive training experiment comparing 8 vs. 16 contact hours of training. Both training groups performed significantly better than the control groups on all post and follow-up assessment measures. At follow-up, self-report measures of assertiveness and teachers' ratings of students' behaviors revealed significant differences between treatment and control groups, and marginally significant differences between the 8 vs. 16 hour groups. These findings are discussed, with recommendations for future investigations.

A test of two theories of dream forgetting

Seventy-two female undergraduates kept home-recall dream diaries for two 20-day periods in a test of predictions generated from Freud's (1900/1965) repression theory and Cohen's (1974) interference theory. One-half of all the Ss participated in an assertion training program during the time they kept the second dream diary. All Ss were assessed for proneness to use repression as a defense against aggressive wishes. It was found that Ss who were undergoing assertion training experienced a decrease in dream recall and dream pleasantness when compared with control Ss. Changes in dream recall and pleasantness were uncorrelated, and the measure of repression did not account significantly for dream recall or pleasantness variance. These findings are interpreted as being more supportive of interference theory than repression theory.

A comparison of three covert assertion training procedures

AbstractAssessed the effectiveness of covert modification procedures in an assertion training program (N = 52). At pretest, Ss chosen on the basis of high scores on an assertion questionnaire were compared to low scoring Ss in a behavioral role play test. Significant differences between these groups were obtained on behavioral ratings. After the pretest, the nonassertive Ss were assigned randomly to a no‐treatment control group or to one of three treatment groups that received covert assertion training procedures. One treatment group received a program that emphasized the generation of alternative responses, while a second group received training directed at restructuring hypothesized negative self‐statements. The third treatment group received a social skills treatment program that employed covert rehearsal procedures. All the treatment groups were superior to the control in behavioral ratings of assertiveness during the posttest in those situations that had been employed previously in treatment; two were superior in those that had not been used and thereby provided evidence of transfer of training. Results are discussed with regard to assessment issues in assertion training programs and the use of cognitively oriented procedures in producing behavioral changes.

Assertive Skills Training for the Blind

Describes how a rehabilitation center, aware that many clients were inept in dealing with society at large, instituted an assertive skills training program to improve client skills in this area. A consultant was hired to work with a counselor and a social skills teacher on the center's staff. Eight clients volunteered to participate in six weekly two-hour sessions. Most felt positive about the experience, and staff members noticed beneficial changes in the behavior of almost all participants. Gives reactions of one participant, who felt that such training encouraged clients to be more articulate about their needs and feelings, and taught them self-reliance.

Assertion and aggression in adult offenders

Assertive and aggressive behavior were assessed by role-playing and self-report techniques in groups of convicted offenders and demographically similar participants in a publicly supported vocational retraining program. Results revealed significantly higher aggression among offenders on role-playing measures. Although there was no significant univariate difference in assertiveness ratings, this result was complicated by significant and varying relationships between assertion and aggression in the two groups. With this relationship controlled, there was a higher level of rated assertion among nonoffenders. The findings suggest the advisability of including an emphasis on aggression reduction in assertiveness training programs for offenders and the importance of including measures of aggression in outcome studies of assertiveness training.

Assertive training for low-income black parents

An assertive training program for parents is described, which was implemented in the Detroit Public Schools Region 7 by therapists from the Wayne State University Psychology Clinic. Fifty-nine parents of preschool age children were trained for 5 consecutive weeks and at one follow-up session. The major goals of the program were to increase the self-esteem of family members and to promote a happier atmosphere in the home. Parents were enthusiastic about this approach and stated that the discussions helped them feel more confident and therefore they were able to handle specific problems with their children more effectively.