Arrow Points Research Articles

Determining the Cultural Affiliation of Terminal Late Woodland-Mississippian Hunting Stations: A Lower Ohio Valley Example

Discriminant analysis, a multivariate statistical technique is used to clarify terminal Late Woodland-Mississippian settlement patterns in the lower Ohio Valley. Initially, the ability of this technique to recognize variation among stylistically similar populations of Yankeetown, Angel, and Caborn-Welborn triangular arrow points is tested with favorable results. These results are then used to determine the cultural affiliation of small hunting stations in the area. The data indicate that hunting station distributions are largely independent of patterns previously documented for local habitation sites and can be used to clarify settlement-subsistence relationships.

Cherokee Archaeology, A Study of the Appalachian Summit

The Appalachian Summit area, which was the heartland of the Cherokee nation in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, is the southernmost and highest part of the Appalachian mountain system. The prehistory of this area has hitherto been poorly understood. In an attempt to close this longstanding gap, Bennie Keel has formulated a stratigraphically derived cultural sequence for this area extending from about 3500 B.C. to the historic period. In doing this Keel identifies the ecological base which supported the aboriginal populations of the area and likewise analyzes the processual relationships between the various cultural units in the region and compares them with those of similar age in neighboring regions. Though Professor Keel's study embraces and summarizes preceding and succeeding phases, he is primarily concerned with identification and definition of the Woodland cultural tradition in the region. From data gathered at the Tuckasegee, Garden Creek Mound No. 2, and Warren Wilson sites, plus material from earlier excavations, Keel has derived his Woodland sequence. The three phases in this sequence are Swannanoa (ca. 600 or 700 B.C. to 200 B.C.), characterized by cord-marked and fabric impressed pottery and small stemmed projectile points; the Pigeon phase (ca. 200 B.C. to A.D. 200), in which the ceramics are generally check stamped and associated with small side notched and triangular arrow points, and the Connestee phase (ca. A.D. 200 to A.D. 1000), which saw an elaboration of elements present in the earlier Woodland phases. Keel favors an in situ development hypothesis for his study of the Appalachian Summit area, since the three Woodland phases that he has identified and defined have many elements in common. He believes that the continuity of traits through time and the similarity between one cultural phase and another reinforce the interpretation of an evolutionary continuum in the area. Keel's work throughout

Space-Time and the Direction of Time

Since McTaggert, two philosophical theories of time have become current, the tensed and the tenseless. Most philosophers impressed with relativity and relativistic space-times have held the tenseless theory. The tensed view has appealed to those philosophers who have relied on ordinary language and common sense for their philosophic wisdom. While I agree that the tenseless rather than the tensed is the appropriate conception of time for a relativistic space-time, I also think the tensed view contains an important insight. In what follows I will show how this insight of the tensed view can be incorporated into the relativistic space-time conception of the universe. According to the tensed theory, it is an objective, irreducible and fundamental feature of the universe that events are continually changing with respect to their being past, present, and future and it is this continually changing or 'moving' present (or becoming) that imposes a direction or arrow on time. At each moment, the arrow points into the future, the direction into which the present moves. Temporal relations are then reduced to, or explained in terms of this moving present. An event (moment) G is earlier than an event (moment) F iff the present moves from G to F i.e, F is in the future of G; G is simultaneous to F iff G and F are copresent, etc. Put differently, temporal relations are explained in terms of the direction or arrow of time, an event (moment) G being earlier than F iff the arrow at G points towards F. The tenseless theory, on the other hand, rejects the idea of an objective, moving present and with it the idea that events (or

Hypnotic Susceptibility, Suggestion, and Reports of Autokinetic Movement

This study investigated the effects of hypnotic susceptibility and of suggestion of direction on four measures of autokinetic movement: the mean number of changes in direction reported per trial, the latency of reported movement, the estimated direction, and the reported magnitude of movement. Subjects high in hypnotic susceptibility had significantly lower latencies and reported significantly more changes; estimated direction and reported magnitude did not differ as a function of hypnotic susceptibility. Suggestion of direction seemed to attenuate magnitude. The influence of suggestion on the perception of autokinetic movement has been demonstrated in a variety of experimental contexts. Sherif (1936), for example, found that subjects' responses were dramatically influenced by group responses. In that investigation, each subject first reported his perceptions of autokinetic movement individually and then was tested again under identical conditions but in a group whose members announced their respective judgments aloud. These subjects tended to revise their initial, individual judgments in favor of closer agreement with the emerging group norm. Also, several studies have shown that the type of projected object strongly influences the perceived direction of autokinetic movement. Toch (1962) found that a stimulus light in the form of an arrow tended to be seen as moving in the direction of the arrow's point. Comalli, Werner, and Wapner (1957) used an ambiguous light that could be perceived as either a balloon or a parachute. When the experimenter suggested that the light was a balloon, the subjects tended to report upward movement; when he suggested that it was a parachute, they tended to report more downward movement. Although the above studies found that experimentally imposed suggestion produces the intended effect on perceived movement, they also typically found substantial individual variability, which implies that some people may be more influenced by experimental suggestion than others.

Arrow Points or Knives? Comments on the Proposed Function of “Stockton Points”

AbstractIn a recent paper, Nance has proposed that the serrated "Stockton Points" of central California were used as cutting implements rather than as arrow points. His sample comprised 10 specimens. Functional analyses of 87 additional examples (plus the examination of 2 specimens imbedded in human bone) are reported here and indicate that Nance’s hypothesis is incorrect. We argue the obvious point that very limited artifact samples are inadequate for generalizing on functional use.

Functional Interpretations from Microscopic Analysis

AbstractFor many years, small, serrated, obsidian artifacts characteristic of late central California cultural manifestations (Late Horizon), have been regarded as projectile points (arrow and dart points). A functional analysis of a number of these tools based on examination with a binocular microscope revealed evidence of wear patterns including striations which makes it quite clear that these artifacts were used for other purposes. This brings the projectile point interpretation up for serious questioning, at least for the area under consideration. It is suggested that further investigation of artifact assemblages, using similar methods, will in all likelihood alter many existing ideas regarding the functional significance of many artifact types. It is further pointed out that many times discrepancies exist between ethnographic accounts and other sources of data relative to the functional significance of artifacts.

THE EXPERIMENTAL X-RAY DEMONSTRATION OF EPIPHYSEAL CARTILAGE: A TECHNIC OF FREEZING AND HIGH CONTRAST.

Physicians concerned with children's diseases are well aware of the many difficulties in the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of infant joints. Part of the problem is our present inability to obtain a radiograph of the portion of the joint which is cartilaginous, the cartilaginous epiphysis being generally invisible. In adults, when a bone is ossified up to the articular cartilage it is hard enough to diagnose dislocation, subluxation, or reduction of a joint. In an infant with bone composed of radiographically invisible cartilage for an inch around the joint, it is that much more difficult. Because an infant's hip joint is roentgenographically invisible, it is necessary to draw lines and angles on the bony parts to determine if the hip is properly seated. Many times these signs are unreliable, and Caffey et al. (1) recently raised serious doubt whether measurements on the bony acetabulum indicate if the cartilaginous acetabulum is normal. At present, the most suitable implement for the correct diagnosis of infant joint disease is arthrography, which is associated with several technical and surgical problems. If it were possible to devise a convenient method for clearly visualizing the outline of the epiphyseal cartilage, correct diagnosis and treatment of congenital dislocation of the hip would be made much easier. This raises the question of whether epiphyseal cartilage has a certain degree of radiographic visibility, and, if so, if there is any practical way of increasing it. That epiphyseal cartilage is visible was suggested by the observation of some shadows on the routine views of infant hips. Examination of any large collection of such films will reveal many with shadows which suggest visualization of the capsule of the joint. Others show within the capsule white shadows which may represent the cartilaginous femoral head. Examples of this are illustrated in Figure 1. These are similar to many of the routine films, but they are considerably brighter because of high-contrast processing. In each of the examples of Figure 1 a large arrow points to a shadow commonly called the capsule. Within this shadow is the ossific center of the femoral head and a less dense area which may represent its cartilaginous portion. It would seem worthwhile to find out what the shadows of Figure 1 are, if there is any way to make them appear more clearly and more regularly, and if any clinical usefulness is to be gained from them. Method To study epiphyseal visibility, the highest contrast was employed. The premise of the study is that epiphyseal cartilage is not invisible on an x-ray film, and that it appears as a different density from the periarticular soft tissues. The theory is that muscle, ligament, tendon, and skin are not opaque to x-rays in the same degree as cartilage, but to a different degree.

A Prehistoric Human Ilium Penetrated by an Arrow Head

Mechanical injuries of the prehistoric people in Japan are less known than those in Europe or in America(1)(2)(3). The same is true of the arrow wounds. Only two specimens were reported until today. The late Dr. KIYON0(4) recognized an arrow wound in human vertebra from Tsubuye Shellmound and the present author(5) found a human ulna penetrated by an arrow point from Ikawazu Shellmound.The author, in collaboration with the Japanese Association of Archaeologists and Department of Anthropology of Tokyo University, made excavations at Sanganji Shellmound near Sendai in spring of the year 1952. More than fifty skeletons were taken from the site. Of these finds, Skeleton No. 22 of an adult male (Fig. 1) was struck by an arrow point made of shale. The right iliac bone was penetrated just behind the anterior iliac spine by an arrowhead coming from an upper and posterior direction (Fig. 2), The base of the arrow head was broken just on the outer surface of the bone, but the tip pierced about 7mm from the interior surface of the bone into the coxal cavity (Fig. 2 and. 3). The wound was obviously not fatal and the presence of the local change on both of the outer and the inner surface (Fig. 3 and 4)of the bone suggests that the wound of the victim had entirely healed. His death must, therefore, have been caused by some illness or incidents after his wound had healed.

Fire Hardening of Wood

The literature of anthropology contains so many references to the fire hardening of arrow and spear points, digging sticks, and other pointed implements of wood that the assumption has become dogmatic and almost fixed. It is needless to refer in particular to specific writings which contain references to fire hardening.Since fire hardening is assumed to be a culture trait of importance, I decided to make a series of experiments to determine to what extent wood was altered by being charred in a fire.

EVALUATION OF CURARIZING AGENTS IN MAN

Curare, the South American arrow poison, is a brew concocted with ritual mystery from a variety of plants by the witch doctor of certain tribes. The natives dip their arrow points into the viscous preparation, and small animals that are wounded by the arrow become paralyzed and fall prey to the hunter. Desiccated curare is a brittle brown substance. Its unique pharmacologic action was discovered 100 years ago by Claude Bernard and his contemporaries, who stated that curare causes paralysis of the voluntary muscles by interrupting the transmission of nerve impulses at the neuromyal junction. The muscle, although no longer responding to stimulation of its motor nerve, remains capable of contraction if its fibers are stimulated directly. Attempts to introduce curare into therapy met with little success as long as no reliable purified preparation was available. With the advent of purified preparations of uniform potency (purified Chondodendron tomentosum extract [intocostrin®]

Site Summaries

Before turning to a systematic description of the archaeological sites of the Columbia-Fraser region, it will be well to review briefly the main sources of information. It may then be possible to bring together various of the sites and, with considerable tentativeness to be sure, associate them according to the cultural phases they represent. Some framework for the prehistory of the region may thus be obtained.Judge Wickersham's early data for western Washington led him to believe that it was a poor region “for the development of the Stone Age,” and that the Indian “made his implements of bone, shell, or wood, and these soon decayed.” He goes on, however, to mention mauls, adz blades, clubs, and pipes of polished stone, in addition to chipped points among which “ … local forms are rare, but so distinct in character from others, which are so clearly traced to eastern Washington, as to admit of but little doubt as to their local origin.” He apparently thought the archaeological materials were closely related to the objects used by living Indians. Ties between the peoples east and west of the Cascades were obvious on the ethnological level and Wickersham was, consequently, not surprised to find arrow points on the Sound which were reminiscent of the eastern section of the state.

The Interpretation of a Failure of an Ordnance Structure

Abstract For the analysis of a failure of a war model of a 240-mm howitzer at half pressure, a fragment was furnished the laboratory. The problem was divided into three phases: First, the origin of failure; second, the mechanism by which the failure developed in the structure; third, the conditions responsible for the failure. Emphasis is placed on determining the spot at which the failure started. A method of reading the rupture flow lines found on the surface of the fragments is described. The arrow points found in torn metal surfaces are shown as pointing to the origin of rupture. These arrow points and other surface characteristics furnish the time scale by which priority as to time may be established for tears or for ruptures which appear to be independent. Once the beginning of a failure is found, however, the laboratory investigation then becomes simple as it may be confined to a small area. In this investigation the heat-affected zone of a weld was disclosed by acid etching. The design called for no welding at this point. Microscopic investigation showed that weld metal of an inferior quality was present, and that cracks existed in the heat-affected zone of the weld. A strip of metal of high Brinell hardness was found just outside the weld metal. The failure progressed from old cracks in this region of high hardness on the exterior surface of the gun. The tension and impact properties and the macroetch characteristics of the metal were determined and their influence upon the failure estimated. Finally, manufacturing records were checked and showed that a machine error on the surface in question had been repaired by welding.

A Unique Foreign Body

Archeology and pathology are blended in the specimen illustrated in Figure 1 and its accompanying roentgenogram (Fig. 2). The specimen illustrated is the ilium of an adult male, presumably that of an Iroquois Indian. It was excavated from a village site near Cayuga, New York, which dates back to approximately 1650. In the crest of the ilium, a flint arrow point may be seen to be embedded. The wound was presumably inflicted in early life, as indicated by the fact that the point is nearly surrounded by bony growth. The Indian must have carried it the remainder of his life.

Some Notes on the Manufacture of Wampum Prior to 1654

The coast of Long Island is dotted with shellheaps, both large and small, of which all but a few are true kitchen middens of the pre-white contact period. This is particularly true of the region investigated by the writer, from the New York City line to Stony Brook on the North Shore. In only one heap examined prior to 1936 did a single artifact of European origin present itself. In that instance, a badly corroded triangular arrow of iron was found in a pit surrounded by deep deposits of shell and other refuse that contained not one fragment of metal, glass, or crockery. In this heap the majority of arrow points were of local quartz, and triangular in pattern. The pottery was abundant, and though most sherds were of typical Long Island Algonkin vessels, there was a fair amount of definitely Iroquoian ware including a small, nearly complete, square-collared pot that cannot be distinguished from a Mohawk Valley specimen.

Ancient Man in Chile

AN expedition to Chile of the American Museum of Natural History, New York, extending over a period of two and a half years, is reported to have discovered a succession of stone age industries claimed to be of greater antiquity than any previously known in South America. More than four thousand stone implements, it is stated by Science Service, Washington, D.C., have been collected by Mr. and Mrs. Junius Bird, on behalf of the Museum, from two cave sites, Fell's Cave and Palli Aike Cave on the banks of the Rio Chico in southern Chile, near the Straits of Magellan. In the former of the two caves was a stratified succession of five cultures, of which the earliest included tanged spear-points, unique in South America, associated with the bones of the extinct horse and giant ground sloth. This culture was covered by a rockfall, while at Palli Aike, twenty miles away, the oldest culture period closes with a deposit of volcanic ash. Some considerable time after the fall of rock, Fell's Cave was again occupied by man. With the artefacts of this period are associated at first bones of the horse and ground sloth, and later of foxes, of which one form is extinct, and birds. The implements are cruder than those of the early stage. In this and the preceding period the animal bones have been split for the extraction of marrow and show the effects of fire. The succeeding culture introduces the bola, of which the carefully grooved weights have been found with the stone gravers used to make the grooves. Arrow points and knives appear with the bola in the fourth culture, which is dated tentatively at 2000 B.C. on comparative evidence. The last occupants of the cave, who show no affinity with their predecessors, were the possessors of a culture in many ways comparable with that of the Ona of Tierra del Fuego, who, up to a few years ago, used stone arrow-points similar to those found in the cave. The cave seems to have been abandoned before the Spanish conquest, as no bones of the horse then introduced into America have been found in it.

Archæological Investigations in Shansi, China

RECENT excavation and an archaeological reconnaissance in the province of Shansi, China, by Mr. C. W. Bishop, associate curator of the Freer Art Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., have made possible a remarkably detailed reconstruction of the late neolithic culture of north China. In an interim summary report of the results issued by the Smithsonian Institution, it is stated that the human skeletal remains discovered indicate that in the main the prehistoric population is identical with that which occupies the country to-day. A village site, which was excavated, was found to consist of beehive-shaped pit-dwellings, about ten feet deep, which were entered from the top. The present inhabitants of the district live in dwellings excavated in the cliff face, sometimes in two or more tiers, the entrance being in front. The prehistoric villagers were settled agriculturists, with the dog and pig as their only domesticated animals. They cultivated their fields with a stone hoe. They wore woven clothes, as well as using bark-cloth, and must therefore have been acquainted with some plant affording fibre for textiles. They also wore skins and furs; and they wove baskets and mats. Their implements were of stone, bone, deer antler and, no doubt, wood. Adzes, axes and knives, both rectangular and semi-lunar, often perforated, were found, as well as arrow points of stone, bone and shell. Although immense quantities of potsherds were found, there were few complete vessels. It is interesting to note that the pottery falls into two classes, of which the earlier was hand-made (coiled) and the later, falling at the end of the stone age, was painted. The hand-made pottery was decorated with impressed, incised or applied ornament; the painted pottery shows a buff or red-brown ground, on which geometric designs were painted in black, red or white. There is evidence of human sacrifice, and possibly of ritual cannibalism. This culture precedes the Chinese Bronze Age, which is known to have begun some centuries before 1500 B.C.

Research Items

The Nisenan.—Mr. A. L. Kroeber publishes in vol. 24, No. 4, of the University of California Publications in Archæology and Ethnology, a study of a section of the Nisenan or Southern Maidu. Those with whom he deals are the valley people, who differ from those of the hills, though the two groups are sometimes classed together, on the ground of their unity, of speech. In fact, Nisenan is not a specific tribal name, but is used in default of a native ethnic name. The Nisenan, now practically extinct, lived near Sacramento on the American and Feather Rivers. From the geographical and topographical information obtained, it was clear that native communications prevailingly followed the large streams, and therefore the ethnic outlook was directed towards the north and north-west within the Great Valley. The San Joaquin portion of the Valley was foreign. It seems that the groups tended to segregate themselves according to physiographic areas. Their dwellings were earth-covered, but at the mouth of Feather River they were tule-covered. They used as boats balsas made of tule and an approach to the canoe in the form of a log raft. Clothing comprised bark or tule aprons and duck feather blankets for the women, round shawls of tule for the men, and occasionally moccasins of buckskin. Their weapons were the bow with arrow points of obsidian, a spear of willow, used only in war, and a sling. The chief was selected when he was young, and succession was usually from father to son. Marriage within the village was not forbidden. Those who died of disease were cremated; but those killed in war were buried, as were also small children. A bear skin and ornaments were put on a dead person so that he should not trouble his living kin. The Kuksu cult or religious organisation comprised two societies with separate initiations. One was confined to men, the other took in a limited number of men and women. The dances were held in the summer in the dance house. The members of the te'me'ya ceremony or society wore a white ornament in the septum of the nose, which was bored for the purpose.

Centre of Pressure on Triangular Plane Gliders at Small Angles of Incidence

MAY I direct the attention of those interested in aërodynamics to the fact that the centre of pressure on a triangular plane glider (apex forward) at a small angle of incidence (angle of attack), say 5° to 10°, lies almost exactly at the centre of the lengtri? The good gliding qualities of the ordinary paper arrow (folded from a square or rectangular piece of paper with its e.g. necessarily central) point to this conclusion, which may be further tested by the following form of glider.