Architectural Design Practice Research Articles

Colour as vocation: Werner Spillmann's contribution to environmental colour design

Werner Spillmann is known as a colour consultant, influential pedagogue, and passionate promoter of colour as a primary design issue. This article aims to present Spillmann's important contribution to environmental colour design giving special attention to his noteworthy activities in the context of the International Colour Association (AIC). Since 1960, beginning with the period when he became a lecturer and subsequently professor in the Department of Architecture at the Winterthur Polytechnic in Switzerland, Spillmann has successfully introduced colour as a basic element of architectural education and also developed a method for using colour in environmental design. During the initial years of the AIC, Spillmann attended the association's rather sporadic events beginning with its first Congress in 1969. Spillmann's influence on the AIC grew with the association's own consolidation and increasing international importance. He presented his first AIC paper in 1976 and by 1977, when the AIC began to consequently fulfill its constitutional aim of realizing an annual program and had become an internationally renowned organization in the field of colour studies, Spillmann began to play a key role in the leadership of the association. In 1982, Spillmann became a member of the AIC Study Group on Environmental Colour Design. In 1983, he was invited to give a presentation at the AIC Midterm Meeting in Sweden, and, in 1985, he was elected to the AIC Executive Committee for the period 1986–1989. In serving the AIC during this time period, he organized the Interim Meeting on Colour in Environmental Design, which took place in 1988 at the Winterthur Polytechnic. Spillmann's contribution to the AIC represents the crystalization of the theoretical and practical lines of development that he pursued through his own teaching and professional design practice. During this same time period that he was intensely involved in the AIC, his importance and influence as a teacher and design professional increased as well. The intense courses he developed for architects, designers, and planners and taught in Winterthur between 1982 and 1995 were highly successful. As a teacher, Spillmann was acclaimed not only because of his consistent methodological approach and comprehensive content of his courses but especially for his charisma. Spillmann's involvement in the AIC and his teaching and personal professional development demonstrate how his assiduous striving toward a greater appreciation of colour as an imminent element in contemporary architectural design resulted in raising awareness of the psychological, social, and cultural value of colour within the related fields of architectural history and theory, cultural studies, design, and urbanism. Especially Spillmann's special contribution is underscored by his capacity to take up new approaches adapting and testing these through application in architectural education and design practice. Spillmann has published several essays on colour in environmental design and colour order systems. He presently lives in Basel, Switzerland. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 30, 53–65, 2005; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/col.20075

The Ombudsman: A Pattern Language for Forecasters

In recent decades, people have made numerous attempts to produce collections of principles for one art or another in areas outside management science. One well-regarded work is that of architects Christopher Alexander et al. (1977). In their classic book, A Pattern Language, they tried to identify and describe a comprehensive set of principles or patterns to guide the practice of architecture and urban design. Published in 1977 by Oxford University Press and containing over 1,000 pages, the book is still a best seller. An example of the sort of thing one learns there is Pattern 33 on night life: “Most of the city’s activities close down at night; those which stay open won’t do much for the night life of the city unless they are together (p. 180).” The idea of using such pattern languages has gained a following among computer-software designers. Coplien and Schmidt (1995), for example, present 30 papers from the first conference on pattern languages of program design. In his classic text on human-computer interaction, Schneiderman (1997, p. 74) identifies important “underlying principles of design,” such as these: enable frequent users to use shortcuts, offer informative feedback, and design dialogs to yield closure. In the following set of papers, forecasting experts examine the impacts of an effort to collect such principles for the science of forecasting. Forecasting is a complex task, one at which we have been notoriously bad over the years. Whether we are predicting which technologies will gain widespread acceptance, whether mergers will be successful, or how rapidly a disease will spread, we often miss by large amounts. Yet, in practice, the value of good forecasts is indisputable. So, the effort of Scott Armstrong and his 40 collaborators to articulate what we know about improving forecasts in terms of principles that can guide practice is important to business research. As Armstrong and Pagell (2003) note, while thousands of articles have been written about forecasting, managers must overcome formidable obstacles to make sense of this material. These problems are not exclusive to the forecasting enterprise. Management is besieged by a virtual explosion of knowledge, much of it highly conditional. In a recent lecture at the Weatherhead School, for example, Karl Weick noted that organization theory has changed from a belief that organizational behavior could be described by a complete set of principles to a field in which more and more variables come into play. Because researchers keep adding variables but seldom remove them, our models grow ever more complex. Rather than enhancing the confidence of those who must rely upon them, we reduce both their confidence and their ability to act. We clearly need new ways to organize our knowledge. The forecasting principles project has produced some 139 general principles and many additional specific or conditional ones. One view might be that this wealth of principles represents a pretty complex model. On the other hand, because the principles summarize and evaluate a massive literature and have been organized to reflect the structure of common forecasting tasks, they have the potential to simplify access to knowledge about forecasting. In a sense, many of the variables that have been proposed in the literature have been dropped.

Square peg in a round hole or horseless carriage? Reflections on the use of computing in architecture

We start with two paradigms that have been used to describe the relationship of computation methods and tools to the production of architecture. The first is that of forcing a square peg into a round hole — implying that the use of a tool is misdirected, or at least poorly fits the processes that have traditionally been part of an architectural design practice. In doing so, the design practice suffers from the use of new technology. The other paradigm describes a state of transformation in relationship to new technology as a horseless carriage in which the process is described in obsolete and ‘backward’ terms. The implication is that there is a lack of appreciation for the emerging potentials of technology to change our relationship with the task. The paper demonstrates these two paradigms through the invention of drawings in the 14th Century, which helped to define the profession of architecture. It then goes on to argue that modern computational tools follow the same paradigms, and like drawings, stand to bring profound changes to the profession of architecture as we know it.

Acoustic simulation and auralization in architectural design practices

This paper is dedicated to predictive relationships between space design and acoustic performance in architectural practice through auraliza-tion. With such a relationship, design alternatives can be evaluated subjectively, as well as objectively, without being constructed. In traditional practice, designers rely on vague experiences and rough estimates to predict acoustic effects while designing architectural spaces. Acoustic analysis and predication are seen as a luxury remedy and only affordable in large-scale theaters and concert halls. The recent available personal-computer-based auralization technologies brought the possibility of applying the latest science and art of architectural acoustics into design practices. Case studies presented in this paper illustrate that the auralization technology makes it possible for potential occupants as well as designers to evaluate the acoustic performance of a design by hearing it directly before a decision to build is made. They also illustrate that the auralization is a powerful tool for the general public to uncover everyday acoustic problems in common building types that have been constantly harming their well being and would otherwise be undetected. Furthermore, they demonstrate that auralization is an effective means to evaluate noise effect on subjective perception where the noise effect is signal context dependent.

Collaborative design system with hypermedium and networking

During the past 10 years, the Sasada Lab of Osaka University has been using computer graphics (CG) for presentation, design review, and design for practical architectural design projects. Our laboratory is interested in “collaborative design” with designers, clients, and citizen. We discovered that there are two major problems, initiatives and timing, and have found new solutions using network technologies. This method have solved these problems, but we have found major problems in “collaborative design” that occur during many practical architectural design projects. This paper presents these problems and some of the solutions and research that our group has accomplished, or is pursuing, in the field of “collaborative design” using some of the latest technologies in hypermedium and networking. This paper presents the requirements for collaborative design system, the new technologies and the thought of system architecture, the prototype system in practical design project, and the evaluation of prototype system.

Chapter 4—Bioclimatism in vernacular architecture

Any analysis of the role played by energy in architecture is faced with serious limitations due to the lack of studies in the architectural bibliography, especially studies of popular architecture. An awareness of these limitations will allow us to understand better why architects have paid little attention to the interaction of form and energy, and to the bioclimatic approach in contemporary architecture in general. The first limitation stems from the very essence of bioclimatic analysis; energy is immaterial, difficult to represent in images, changing in time and wrongfully left out of the architectural literature. This is why it is difficult to find a basic knowledge of the functional aesthetic possibilities of bioclimatism in the cultural experience of present-day architects. The second limitation to this knowledge, even more important than the previous one, is the low value given to the more anonymous popular architecture as opposed to representative architecture. The latter is the kind of architecture built by established power, which attempts to impress the observer and clashes with, dominates, and often destroys the natural environment. This style of architecture is crammed with theoretical aesthetic concerns, which would rather create artificial environments than be integrated in the natural milieu. To sum up, it is the architecture undertaken by well-known authors, found in important buildings, which have been commented and widely appreciated by architecture critics throughout history. Nowadays, representative architecture can be said to describe the architecture found in large office buildings, which embody the legacy of such works from the history of culture as the pyramids, classic shrines, medieval castles and large Gothic cathedrals, baroque and Renaissance palaces, etc. These modern buildings, clad in glass as a symbol of their modernity, are incongruously dark and require artificial lighting during the day, while the flimsy casing separating them from the outside makes it necessary to use air conditioning all year round, even when outside conditions are pleasant. We can well affirm that these buildings are so wrong that they work worse than the climate. In comparison with this type of representative architecture, we find popular architecture, performed by the people as a direct response to their needs and values. These buildings show a greater respect for the existing environment, whether natural or artificial. They do not reflect theoretical aesthetic pretensions and use local materials and techniques as far as possible, repeating over and over again the course of history models which take the constraints imposed by the climate fully into account. Our popular architecture—so often forgotten in official circles—may well be the kind which can best teach us today how to assimilate the bioclimatic approach in the practice of architectural design. However, we should not consider these solutions to be models to copy in current architecture. Our technical capacity and our cultural grounding prevent us from returning to these obsolete architecture forms, but what may be of use as a lesson and a source of inspiration is the attitude of the builders of this popular architecture, which recovers a relationship to the environment which has been lost in the more official architecture of the 20th century.

On architectural design in virtual environments

This paper considers the domains of architectural design and film theory for the purpose of informing the design of virtual environments (VEs). It is suggested that these domains may form a background for the consideration of possible metaphors for the design of VEs. Firstly, the paper investigates the relation between architecture and virtual reality technology, through the nature of drawings and virtual environments as means of representing three-dimensional spaces. Then, differences between VEs and physical environments (PEs) are identified for the purpose of understanding the intrinsic nature of VEs, by comparing them to our familiar everyday spatial experience. This step is considered essential in helping us understand how we might be able to develop an architectural conception of designing spaces, in the context of VEs. The paper then presents two directions towards informing VE design by means of theoretical and practical architectural design knowledge. Finally, the use of film-related studies is considered as a means of enhancing our conception of time and movement in VEs.

Bioclimatic design as the core of Environment Programmes

There is a recognised need for an integrated approach to new professional challenges of sustainability, and for coordination of all environment-related subjects within the curriculum of The University of Melbourne, Faculty of Architecture and Planning. The new Environment Programmes developed during 1993 and started in 1994 will offer courses on the theory and practice of sustainable urban and architectural design, with an emphasis on bioclimatic urban and architectural design. In addition, the Programme will engage in research on the development of environment-responsive, regional approaches to urbanism and architecture in different parts of Australia, The Pacific region and throughout the world, implementing research results with practical design work. This paper presents: (i) the curriculum itself; (ii) the basic organisational and educational principles and ideas behind the course; (iii) its parallel programmes based on interdisciplinary and international collaboration, and (iv) describes an attitude to educate architects capable to contribute to the generation of a specific, environmentally generated regionalism in future Australian architecture. The Energy and Environmental Programme's curriculum was fully defined in December 1993, and gradually introduced during 1994. The first full undergraduate cycle started in 1995.

Dimensions of Quality

An ongoing question arises regarding the applicability of generic models and measures to the production of a full range of products and services from the manufacturing, distribution, and service segments of our economy. To answer this question, a committee of the Quality Management Division of the American Society for Quality Control (ASQC) has taken on the task of defining a Best Practices Model to be used by organizations for developing their own customer-specific practices. This article proposes that use a generic organizational model is possible for those organizations who view themselves as a client-centered organization, regardless of the product or service they provide. The viability of these models for the typical engineering and architectural (E/A) design practice are also examined.

A motion estimator for low bit-rate video codec

A novel component performing motion estimation is presented. This chip is designed based on the three-step hierarchical search block-matching algorithm and can be applied to image communication on ISDN (integrated services digital network) (H.261 standard), MPEG, TV transmission, HDTV (high-definition television), etc. The practical architectural design techniques and the chip features are discussed. This component has the following features: unified execution steps, low latency delay, low I/O bandwidth, regular hardware structure, and single-chip or cascaded configurations.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

The Structure of Architectural Problems

The central problem considered by architectural theorists is the establishment of a theory of interaction which gives rise to a matrix of the built form. This paper analyses the structure of architectural design education and practice in relation to the theories of H.A. Simon, Richard Llewelyn-Davies, Christopher Alexander, and the subsequent work emanating from W. Hillier, A. Leaman, and J. Musgrove from 1972. It relates the theoretical problems of architecture to Simon's “Design Science”, and also to the paradigm of “intuition” advocated by Llewelyn-Davies at London University.

Design education in the third world

This paper aims to investigate what is unique about videogame spaces and their construction, and how they might be utilised by architects. This design-led study establishes videogames as an architectural medium through practice-based research projects, examining game worlds as architectural spaces by developing design methods to analyze their environments. It then discusses developing games as architectural representations combining virtual space with computational rules. The paper's final study suggests how game structures might be applied in design approaches for ostensibly real sites. Through four case study projects, I outline a new form of architectural design practice operating between physical and virtual, reflecting the cultural influence of game worlds and exploring videogame environments as new ways to ‘realise’ architecture.