Archaic Period Research Articles

Pergamos. An unexplored fortified site in north-eastern Greece

The aim of this article is to present the first results of a project investigating the hitherto unexplored site of Pergamos, located on a hill known as Koules/Alonaki just to the south of modern Moustheni in the Pieria valley. The site has a long history, with the earliest traces of human activity dating to the Late Bronze Age and the first visible architectural remains—impressive and well-preserved fortifications built in a stack-work technique—originating in the Late Archaic period. Following this, surface finds testify to activity and habitation throughout the centuries until a substantial strengthening of the defensive walls during Late Roman or medieval times, before the site was abandoned at a currently unknown point. To achieve the aim the article begins with an introduction to the site and its surrounding landscape. Following this, the results of a survey of the visible remains are presented, focusing on the fortifications and two architectural fragments. The site is then discussed within its spatial and chronological context, suggesting that Pergamos was an important settlement in the area, exhibiting traits of a polis, in particular during Archaic and Classical times before it fell within the sphere of influence of the Roman colony Philippi.

Sustaining the shell middens: A coastal vulnerability assessment of shell midden sites within the Nansemond River tributary

Shorelines have always been hubs of human activity and development meaning much of our cultural heritage is concentrated in coastal settings. In recent decades, changing environmental conditions and the effects of global warming (i.e., shoreline erosion, sea-level rise, land subsistence) threaten to destroy much of our remaining global coastal heritage. To prevent the further loss of archaeological contexts, this study seeks to develop a coastal vulnerability index through geospatial analysis to assess the vulnerability of 35 precontact shell midden sites along the Nansemond River in Suffolk, Virginia. The Nansemond middens offer a long-term history of how coastal inhabitants interacted with their surrounding landscape, with occupation of the area ranging from the Early Archaic period through European contact. This research considers various environmental and cultural variables used to determine which archaeological sites are most threatened by environmental changes and have the greatest potential to contribute valuable data to understand the past.

Colonization in Homer’s Odyssey

Homer’s Odyssey provides a rich commentary on expansion, cultural norms, and Greek values during the archaic period. This paper examines the Odyssey through the lens of colonization, analyzing the ethnographic descriptions of the Cyclopes, Phaecians, and Laestrygonians, which depict conflicts faced by Greek colonial settlers during the 8th to 6th centuries BCE. The Cyclopes represent a “savage” society, showcasing the dangers Greeks may face in unknown lands. The Phaecians elucidate a belief in Golden Age wealth and utopia lying elsewhere, particularly in the Near East. The Laestrygonians present a synthesis of these two archetypes, illustrating the unpredictable outcomes of colonial efforts. Through these ethnographic descriptions and the use of these societies in the text, Homer questions the necessity of Greek establishments abroad, and portrays the challenges associated with exploration in his era.

A novel application of sclerochronology: Assessing the paleoenvironment of a marine transgressed Archaic Period archaeological site in the Gulf of Mexico

Sequential oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) isotope analysis were performed on eight eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) valves excavated from a marine transgressed archaeological site on the southwest coast of Florida, USA. The oysters were attached to Archaic Period human skeletal material and serve as a marker of mid-Holocene sea level rise at this once-inland mortuary pond. Data were analyzed to— (1) determine if a sample of oysters excavated from the site represent one or more inundation episodes, (2) assess past water parameters as the pond was transgressed, and (3) determine how long the oysters grew on exposed human skeletal material. Results of sclerochronological analysis and radiocarbon dating demonstrate there were two distinct environments at the time of oyster growth, each representing separate time periods and water parameters, with the earlier oyster group indicating fresher water parameters. Oysters were between one and three years old, suggesting human skeletal material was exposed for at least that long. This is the first instance in which oysters attached to Archaic Period skeletal material were used to draw wider conclusions about past marine transgression and environmental change, and results show that oysters contain valuable information for investigation at drowned archaeological sites. This research clarified methodologies that could be employed to better understand sea level rise's effects on archaeological sites on drowned portions of continental shelves.

Il misolidio: testimonianze, impiego, lineamenti di storia della musica

Abstract This article clarifies what was meant by ‘Mixolydian,’ that is, which sequence of intervals and, possibly, of sounds could be associated with this designation. Its aim is to search for traces of the authors who invented, modified, or preferred to use this ἁρμονία, in order both to study its use from the Archaic period to the end of the Classical period and to position it within our general knowledge of the history of ancient Greek music.

TYPOLOGY OF FACES ON ETRUSCAN TERRACOTTA (TO THE PROBLEM OF THE EVOLUTION OF THE STYLE OF HEAD TYPES ACCORDING TO P.J. RIIS)

Introduction. Etruscan-Italian fine art experienced a noticeable artistic influence from Greece. Iconographic types of the head and face were transmitted both through the import of finished Greek products and through the circulation of matrices and the artists themselves, which complicates the chronology and typology of monuments. P.J. Riis proposes to systematize the "evolution" of Etruscan terracotta styles by constructing a chronological series from the early archaic to the late classic [Riis, 1981]. The purpose of the work was to study the concept of P.J. Riis about iconography in Etruscan coroplastics and the creation of generalized morphological characteristics of local types (regional styles). Materials and methods. Illustrated chronological tables from P.J. Riis and the method of composite portrait in digital version were used. Results and discussion. P.J. Riis examined 352 types of images, their archaeological context geographically confined to Northern Etruria (Clusium), Central (Vulci, Volsinia), Southern (Caere, Veii, Falerii, Latium) and Etruscan Campania (Capua). The earliest production of Etruscan terracotta was concentrated in Campania, Southern and Northern Etruria, the first hellenized style of terracotta spread from Etruscan Capania into Southern Etruria. The composite portraits based on the combined samples of archaic art indicate the absence of significant sex differences. In the composite female portrait for all samples of the archaic period, a contribution of morphological elements of the types of Southern and Central Etruria is visually noted. The greatest contribution to the morphology of the face in the composite female portrait for all samples of the classical period was made by Central Etruria and Capua. The resulting composite portraits by region indicate the heterogeneity of facial iconography in the archaic and classical art of Central Italy and visualize the conclusions of P.J. Riis on the development of several local traditions of fine art style. Conclusion. The classification of P.J. Riis is constructed in such a way that it assumes for its further completion with new archaeological data, so it can be considered as an attempt to create a “visual” history of the Etruscan portrait, at least part of it.

Tick Island Incised: an early ceramic skeuomorph in Late Archaic Florida

ABSTRACT Tick Island Incised (TII) is a relatively rare variety of Late Archaic fiber-tempered pottery found across sections of central and northern peninsular Florida. The striking stylistic divergences of TII from other Orange pottery types have led multiple researchers to invoke foreign influences or migrations to account for its appearance. This paper presents newly collected data on TII vessels from the Silver Glen complex (8LA1/8MR123) and related sites along the St. Johns River and northern Gulf Coast. These data, which represent the most detailed information yet collected on the technology, style, composition, and spatiotemporal distribution of TII pottery, are used to address numerous published speculations regarding the type's timing, origin, and cultural meaning. This research supports the idea that TII's aberrant style, which features symbolically powerful sinistral or left-opening spirals, can be explained as an example of skeuomorphism linked to preexisting lightning whelk shell cups. It further indicates that TII appeared during a particularly volatile time during the Late Archaic period and that its use and deposition in ritualized contexts may have been part of a deliberate effort to intervene in ongoing historical processes and mediate their impacts.

El arte rupestre de Huancha (Daniel Alcides Carrión - Pasco) y sus implicancias en las rutas interregionales del centro peruano durante los periodos Arcaico y Formativo

Huancha is an archaeological complex that presents a great variety of rock representations from different periods. In this paper we highlight its importance as a place of connection between the western side (the coast) and the eastern side (the Amazon basin) of the Andean mountain range, placing it within the discourse of recent research. We propose through the study of the rock art in Huancha that this site played an articu- lating role between different populations during the Archaic and Formative periods. In the Archaic period the site would be related to groups that practiced camelid hunting and began the process of domestication of these. During the Formative period it is related to the development of ceremonial activities and interactions, expressed in several conspi- cuous art styles and represented in a similar way to others located in the Coast and the Andes of central Peru, and even in some of the north. Based on these data, we consider that Huancha formed an important part of the interregional routes in an extensive area of the Central Andes that included the Amazon basin, and whose importance endures to the present day.

Let Us Rejoice by Drinking and Talking Beautifully: Sympotic Poetics as a Function of Culture

The article explores the concept of sympotic poetics in European culture as a distinctive form of discourse. This tradition originated in the Greek civilisation during the archaic period as a technique for socialisation within aristocratic culture and subsequently developed in Roman culture during the imperial period. Sympotic poetics thrived in medieval and modern Europe, where new forms of literary games, rooted in the intellectual traditions of antiquity, emerged. The article examines the beginnings of scholarly literary discussion and reviews selected examples of sympotic discussion practices in European culture.

Intertemporal Memories of a Shifting Unity

In ancient Greece, a metropolis and its apoikiai constituted a form of kinship unity. In Thucydides’ view, at least in his era, particular bonds of kinship connected the Corinthian apoikiai on, or in the vicinity of, the Ambracian Gulf with Corinth itself, and literary tradition endowed Ambracia, Leucas and Anactorion with a special cultural unity. Modern research ranging over political institutions, foreign policy, ideology, economic factors, cults, myths, calendar and burial customs has shown that these poleis regarded themselves as members of a Corinthian colonial family. Initially highly dependent on Corinthian policy during the archaic period, by the end of this period the western apoikiai had admittedly begun to diverge from a Corinthian-centred economy and to move away from Corinthian traditions. Internal social diversification also caused these poleis to move away from Corinthian institutions and habits. Nevertheless, despite various political fluctuations, western Corinthian apoikiai remained within the Corinthian sphere of influence and after Timoleon’s campaign they revived old Corinthian traditions and institutions. Indeed, other Greeks of late classical times regarded the citizens of these poleis as if they were indeed Corinthians. The area remained under Corinthian economic influence throughout Hellenistic times and memories of affinities with and ties to Corinth survived in her apoikiai. Lastly, Hellenistic monarchs and even Augustus himself took advantage of the peculiar Corinthian identity of these apoikiai for their own ends.

Evidence for the Eastern Agricultural Complex Crops in the Upper Delaware Valley: Botanical Analysis from the Manna Site (36Pi4)

AbstractFrom the Archaic period onward, Indigenous populations across the Eastern Woodlands cultivated a suite of crops known to archaeologists as the Eastern Agricultural Complex. However, aside from squash (Cucurbita pepo) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus), little evidence exists for the cultivation of these plants in the northeastern Algonquian homeland. Botanical analysis from the Manna site (36Pi4), located in the Upper Delaware Valley, provides evidence for the cultivation of the full suite of Eastern Agricultural Complex crops. Flotation samples analyzed from Manna provide the first evidence for possible Lenape cultivation of chenopodium (Chenopodium berlandieri), squash, sunflower, and marshelder (Iva annua) from contexts dating to AD 0–1650 (Middle and Late Woodland) at Manna. Lenape cultivation of these crops complicates the traditional view of Indigenous agricultural systems in northeastern North America and raises questions about when and how these species were introduced to the region.

Latin vowel weakening in phonetic perspective

Abstract Classical Latin exhibits vowel alternations in forms like faciō ‘I make’ ~ perficiō ‘I complete,’ factus ‘made’ ~ perfectus ‘completed,’ which are commonly attributed to historical change(s) whereby mid and low short vowels are raised and centralized in non-initial syllables. This pattern of change, known as Latin vowel weakening, has traditionally been understood as vowel reduction resulting from prominent initial stresses in the Archaic period (ca. 500–300 BC). In this article, I propose a revised theory of weakening according to phonetic principles. Rather than reduction alone, weakening is understood as the result of reduction followed by open-syllable tensing in non-initial syllables.

The Lake Effect: Lake Michigan, Landscape Evolution, and the Archaeological Record of the Chicago Region

Abstract Lake Michigan continues to have a major impact on the environment in the Chicago region, and changes in lake levels were a major driver of landscape evolution throughout the late Pleistocene and Holocene. Fluctuating lake levels reduced or increased the extent and character of terrestrial resources. The landscape has also been altered by erosional and aggradational processes from near-shore currents and wave action. Interpretation of archaeological site and settlement patterns in this region requires an understanding of the factors that have shaped and continue to shape this landscape. In the PaleoIndigenous and Archaic periods, foraging groups adapted to rapidly changing vegetation patterns and episodes of lake transgression and recession that opened or closed new habitats. In the Woodland and Upper Mississippian periods, lake levels stabilized, but the landscape continued to evolve, with erosion and deposition of sediments along Lake Michigan shorelines. Evidence for lake-level fluctuations over the last 12,000 years is available from a variety of data sets, including those for deep lacustrine sediments, ostracods, abandoned shorelines, and sand dunes. By synthesizing these data and utilizing GIS to reconstruct past lakeshores, we seek to better understand how people interacted with and adjusted to this dynamic landscape.

Music at Social Meals in Greek and Roman Antiquity: From the Archaic Period to the Age of Augustine. By Charles H. Cosgrove

<i>Music at Social Meals in Greek and Roman Antiquity: From the Archaic Period to the Age of Augustine</i>. By Charles H. Cosgrove

Jewelry, Accessories, and Decorative Elements of Women’s Funeral Costume of the First Half of the 6th Century BCE in the Territory of Forest-Steppe Scythia

Among the antiquities of the archaic period of Forest-Steppe Scythia, a group of elite burials of women, possibly endowed with priestly functions during their lifetime, stands out. Until recently, only two unrobbed burial complexes were known to contain the main burials of women of high social rank, in whose graves golden costume elements were found—primarily expressive details of headdresses. The barrows (kurgans) were discovered at the end of the 19th century when amateur excavations were actively carried out on the right bank of the Dnipro. As a result of research conducted by the author at the Skorobir necropolis (in the area of the Bilsk fortified settlement, on the left bank of the Dnipro), two similar graves were recently discovered, which provided new material that significantly expanded the known geographical distribution of this phenomenon. The materials are closely analogous to the previously discovered elite female burials of the Middle Dnipro (barrow 100 near the village of Syniavka, barrow 35 near the village of Bobrytsa) and allow us to highlight a number of stable elements of the funeral costume of noble women and the sets of objects that complemented them. In this article, we consider the social and cultural significance of female attire in elite burials and delimit the chronological framework of this previously understudied phenomenon within the first half of the 6th century BCE. The new finds offer unprecedented insight into the form and meaning of one type of female headdress which researchers have tried to reconstruct for over a century.

Population dynamics and cultural niche construction during the Late Holocene in a mediterranean ecosystem (central Chile, 32°S−36°S)

Understanding socio-ecological systems over the long term can shed light on past adaptive strategies in environmentally sensitive regions. Central Chile is an emblematic case study for mediterranean ecosystems, where a progressive and sustained population increase began approximately 2000 years ago alongside significant landscape changes. In this work we analyzed regional paleo-demographic trends by compiling a new database of archaeological dates over the last 3000 years, and integrating population dynamics theory with an analysis of the spatio-temporal variation of regional cultural stages. Results show three moments of marked acceleration in population growth: just before agricultural adoption, during the Archaic Period (c. 700-300 BCE); during the second half of the ECP (500–900 CE); and during the Late Intermediate Period (1200–1400 CE). We also identified periods of deceleration in per capita growth rates, although population size continued to increase (300 BCE−500 CE, 900–1200 CE and after 1400 CE). These large shifts in the per capita growth rates coincide with major cultural changes associated with social and economic aspects. The pulses of major occupation show in general terms a more intensive use of the valleys as the population size increased, although the remaining ecosystems never ceased to be occupied with different economic and symbolic emphases.

Ionic Art and Script in Archaic Macedonia: Origin(s), Medium(s), Effect(s)

&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; It is widely assumed that Macedonia in the late Archaic period was under East Greek influence. This view was formed decades ago, based on scant evidence, but has since been established through repetition and persists despite the growing number of reported and published finds that indicate otherwise. In this paper I intend to challenge this opinio communis and to reframe the issue of Ionic influence in archaic Macedonia within the wider Northern Aegean context. To this end, the relevant pieces of evidence are reviewed, focusing on works of sculpture in the Ionic style and inscriptions in Ionic script, but also examining the coinage in the name of Alexander I. In short, it is demonstrated that the available pieces of evidence do not support widespread East Greek influence in Macedonia in the late Archaic period and it is argued that it was rather through the Cycladic colonies in the Strymonic Gulf that Ionic art reached Macedonia; that mostly Ionians from these colonies were responsible for the inscriptions in Ionic script in Macedonia; and that it was possibly a Central, not East, Ionic script that was employed on Alexander I’s coinage.&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D;

Texts, Bodies, Images, Movement

Abstract The international symposium Imprints of Ancient Greek and Roman Dance: Texts, Bodies, Images, Movement took place in Madrid in September 2022. As the final component of a research project funded by the Spanish Society of Classical Studies and the BBVA Foundation, this event aimed to scrutinize a series of concepts that have proven significant to the transhistorical and transcultural study of dance. The eight scholars tasked with examining these concepts presented interesting case studies of ancient Greek and Roman dancing between the Archaic period and late Antiquity, drawing upon a variety of media and sources.

Local Scripts and State Formation in Northern Greece and the Northern Aegean

Beyond the colonial city-states on the coast and their immediate vicinity, several local scripts are attested across the Thracian and Macedonian hinterland in the Archaic period. These are not only different to one another but also foreign to the area, coming either from the colonies or from other parts of Greece. Having demonstrated that a uniform script is characteristic of a state, it is argued that the lack of local scripts among the ethnê implies not just lack of a developed epigraphic habit, but also lack of developed political institutions. It is further argued that the earliest evidence of an epigraphic habit in Macedonia occurs in the latter half of the 4th century BCE, concurrently with the socio-political transformation of the kingdom following the consolidation of Macedonia in the mid‑4th century BCE.

Exploring Dress, Gender, and Bodily Capital through Pre- and Protohistoric Funerary Contexts: Case Studies from Southwestern Europe

While uneven in their scope and reach, studies of dress and dress complements (fibulae, belt buckles, buttons, etc.) have a significant tradition within the broader study of the pre- and protohistory of Mediterranean Europe. Many of these studies, however, have had a strong focus on the typology of the dress complements and ornaments themselves, either as chronological indicators, ethnic markers, or both. In more recent years, however, a shift in research agendas has ushered in the introduction of new perspectives and new ways of thinking about dress and bodily adornment. This contribution explores one such perspective in particular — namely, the concept of bodily capital and its application to the interpretation of gendered regimes of dress — through selected case studies. Said case studies hail from two areas with strong traditions of research on dress and dress complements — the Iberian and the Italic Peninsulas (Figs. 1 &amp; 2). Regarding the former, examples from the Chalcolithic (see below, section 3.1.1) and the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages of Southern Portugal (section 3.1.2) illustrate the evolution of regional regimes for the accumulation of bodily capital over time and show how these can highlight the gendered dynamics behind the sociopolitical development of communities in this area between the 3rd and the 1st millennia BC. For the latter, the examples of protohistoric Campania, with a focus on Pontecagnano and its surrounding area (section 3.2.1), and the Archaic Period in the Picenum, with a focus on the site of Numana (section 3.2.2), illustrate the role of dress, and especially female dress, in displays of bodily capital. These have far-reaching implications which go beyond the local and regional scale and must be set against the backdrop of the increasing connectivity of Mediterranean communities throughout the 1st millennium BC. As will be seen, all these case studies offer insights and clues on how to approach dress and its relationship to both embodied identities and lived experiences of gender (but also status) from different and innovative angles. Before delving into them, however, it seems useful to start by briefly reviewing the development of theoretical and methodological approaches to dress in archaeological research, and to set out the conceptual framework of this study by briefly discussing the notion of bodily capital, its origin and potential applications for the topic at hand.