Antibiotic Resistance In Animals Research Articles

Joining Forces against Antibiotic Resistance: The One Health Solution.

Antibiotic resistance is a significant global health concern that affects both human and animal populations. The One Health approach acknowledges the interconnectedness of human health, animal health, and the environment. It emphasizes the importance of collaboration and coordination across these sectors to tackle complex health challenges such as antibiotic resistance. In the context of One Health, antibiotic resistance refers to the ability of bacteria to withstand the efficacy of antibiotics, rendering them less effective or completely ineffective in treating infections. The emergence and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria pose a threat to human and animal health, as well as to the effectiveness of medical treatments and veterinary interventions. In particular, One Health recognizes that antibiotic use in human medicine, animal agriculture, and the environment are interconnected factors contributing to the development and spread of antibiotic resistance. For example, the misuse and overuse of antibiotics in human healthcare, including inappropriate prescribing and patient non-compliance, can contribute to the selection and spread of resistant bacteria. Similarly, the use of antibiotics in livestock production for growth promotion and disease prevention can contribute to the development of antibiotic resistance in animals and subsequent transmission to humans through the food chain. Addressing antibiotic resistance requires a collaborative One Health approach that involves multiple participants, including healthcare professionals, veterinarians, researchers, and policymakers.

Exopolysaccharides from lactic acid bacteria, as an alternative to antibiotics, on regulation of intestinal health and the immune system.

Over-use or misuse of antibiotics in livestock and poultry production contributes to the rising threat of antibiotic resistance in animals and has negative ecological effects. Exopolysaccharides from lactic acid bacteria (LAB-EPS) are a class of biological macromolecules which are secreted by lactic acid bacteria to the outside of the cell wall during their growth and metabolism. Numerous studies demonstrated that LAB-EPS have anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities and are able to regulate intestinal health and the immune system in livestock. They are biodegradable, nontoxic and bio-compatible, which are considered as ideal alternatives to antibiotics. This review aims to discuss and summarize recent research findings of LAB-EPS on regulation of intestinal health and the immune system in animals, and thus provide scientific justification for commercial applications of LAB-EPS in livestock.

Why Do Antibiotics Fail? A Veterinary Perspective

In both human and veterinary medicine, the failure of apparently appropriate antimicrobial therapy is a common and often exasperating clinical problem. Many factors are associated with the failure of antibiotic therapy, including an incorrect diagnosis of infectious disease, selection of the inappropriate antibiotic, and incorrect dosage. To achieve the best results, bacteriological diagnostics in the laboratory should be made. Even though the in-vitro antimicrobial susceptibility testing guides the potentially suitable antimicrobials, the in-vitro susceptibility obtained is not always the best in-vivo. The clinician should be aware of other factors, including biofilm-forming bacteria, physicochemical conditions at the site of infection (such as perfusion rate, oxygen partial pressure, and pH value), or immunosuppression of the patient that can lead to failure of the treatment. This review summarized the main factors associated with antibiotic failure in a veterinarian practice. In a world where animal and human resistance to an antibiotic is rising every year, rational and efficient use of antibiotic therapy is of utmost importance. It is essential to continue with the education of veterinary practitioners in all aspects of antimicrobial resistance and treatment to improve future treatments and have a more rational use of antibiotics to reduce antibiotic resistance in animals and humans.

PIG FARMS AND THEIR SURROUNDINGS AS A FACTOR IN THE SPREAD OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE

In recent decades, in modern intensive animal husbandry, there has been a worrying trend towards the selection and spread of bacterial strains resistant to antibiotics. This global phenomenon has not only a certain negative effect on therapeutic practice, but also poses a serious risk to the spread of resistance in the food chain and in humans. Various genera from the family Enterobacteria like Salmonella, Shigella, Klebsiella, Yersinia, Citrobacter, etc. and especially Escherichia coli have a special place in this process. The most commonly used antibiotics for treatment of patients with complicated Salmonella infections are ceftriaxone and ciprofloxacin, to which the bacteria has already developed antibiotic resistance. For Escherichia coli, significantly increased resistance is developed to the third-generation cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, as well as combined resistance to three key antimicrobial groups (fluoroquinolones, third-generation cephalosporins and aminoglycosides). Resistance among Yersinia spp. against tetracyclines and fluorochinolones has been reported to the scientific community in numerous studies on human and animal isolates. By using the raw manure as fertilizer, these microorganisms may be transmitted to soil, wastewater or others environmental niches. Further, they can be transmitted via the food chain to humans and animals. Considering that the horizontal gene transfer is one of the most important mechanisms for transmitting of antimicrobial resistance, then after consumption of contaminated food, water, etc., genetically determined antibiotic resistance in animals can easily affect resistance among people, which makes vital drugs ineffective against serious illnesses. For the possible spread of antimicrobial resistance in pigs and related ecological niches - pig farms, manure lagoons, wastewater and soils, large-scale studies are being conducted to clarify their ecological and health significance. In addition, the results obtained will contribute to the development of an effective national strategy for the control of antimicrobial resistance.

The Antibiotics Used in Livestock and Their Impact on Resistance in Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus hirae on Farms in Gabon

The emergence of antibiotic resistance is a major concern around the world. The objective of this study was to investigate the antibiotics used in livestock and their impact on resistance in Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus hirae on farms in Gabon. A structured questionnaire was used to collect information on the farms. Samples were collected from farms (n = 20) tested for Enterococcus by culture and isolation and were identified using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing. Antibiotic susceptibility was determined by the disc diffusion method on Mueller Hinton agar. The 20 farms included laying hens (6), swine (6), sheep (4) and cattle farms (4). Tetracycline was the most used antibiotic family (91%) and the most used prophylactic method (47%) for the treatment of animals. A total of 555 samples were collected and 515 (93%) Enterococcus spp. isolates of the genus were obtained. The prevalence of E. faecium and E. hirae were 10% and 8%, respectively. The isolates from E. faecium and E. hirae we found were related to clinical and human isolates in the NCBI database. E. faecium and E. hirae isolates showed a high resistance to tetracycline (69% and 65%) and rifampicin (39% and 56%). The tet(M) gene was detected in 65 tetracycline-resistant isolates with a large majority in hens (78% (21/27) and 86% (12/14) in E. faecium and E. hirae, respectively). The consumption of antibiotics favours the emergence of antibiotic resistance in animals in Gabon.

Antibiotic usage and resistance in animal production in Vietnam: a review of existing literature.

Inappropriate use of antibiotics in animal production system is one of the major factors leading to the antibiotic resistance (ABR) development. In Vietnam, the ABR situation is crucial as antibiotics have been used indiscriminately for disease prevention and as growth promoters in animals. Thus, a thorough understanding on the ABR in veterinary settings would be beneficial to the Vietnam public health authority in formulating timely interventions. This review aimed to provide information on the current status of antibiotic usage in animal husbandry in Vietnam, identified gaps in research, and suggested possible solutions to tackle ABR. To this end, data on ABR in animals were extracted from 3 major electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect) in the period of January 2013-December 2020. The review findings were reported according to PRISMA, which highlighted the emergence and persistence of ABR in bacterial isolates, including Escherichia coli, Enterococcus spp., and Salmonella species, obtained from pigs and poultry. The lack of awareness of Vietnamese farmers on the antibiotic utilization guidelines was one of the main causes driving the animal ABR. Hence, this paper calls for interventions to restrict antibiotics use in food-producing animals by national action plan and antibiotics control programs. Additionally, studies to evaluate knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) of the community are required to promote rational use of antibiotics in all sectors.

English

This review aimed to make an inventory of the relevant work carried out on antibiotic resistance in the animal sector during the last two decades in French-speaking countries of the West African sub-region. English and French published articles from 2000 to 2019 indexed in PubMed, Google Scholar, and African Journals Online were reviewed in accordance with an adapted PRISMA guideline. Mean Resistance (MR) and interquartile ranges (IQR) of resistance were calculated for each antibiotic-bacterium combination for each country and globally. 28 articles were eligible for this qualitative review. One third of the countries did not have suitable data on antibiotic resistance in animals. Senegal (11/28) and Ivory Coast (8/28) are at the top of countries where more studies have been carried out. Poultry (17/28), cattle (10/28) and pigs (4/28) are the most investigated species. In poultry, resistance in E. coli strains was high to Tetracycline’s (MR: 97%; IQR [80.65%- 98.5%]). Resistance in Salmonella spp. strains from poultry was high to Erythromycin (MR: 100%; IQR [99%-100%] and Amoxicillin-Clavulanic acid (47.76%; IQR [16.06%-52.52%]). In cattle, resistance of Staphylococcus spp. was low in general for all antibiotics with resistance of 16.25% IQR [11.75%-20.58%], 14.63% IQR [13.82%-31.32%], 10% IQR [8.55%-16%] respectively for Tetracycline’s, Penicillin, and Gentamicin. More studies deserve to be done in West Africa French speaking countries in order to draw attention of decision-makers, lead to regulations on the correct use of antibiotics in the veterinary sector, and if possible set up a sub-regional network for the monitoring of antibiotic resistance.   Key words: Antibiotic resistance, animals, West Africa, French countries.

Assessing Upstream Determinants of Antibiotic Use in Small-Scale Food Animal Production through a Simulated Client Method.

Small-scale food animal production has been celebrated as a means of economic mobility and improved food security but the use of veterinary antibiotics among these producers may be contributing to the spread of antibiotic resistance in animals and humans. In order to improve antibiotic stewardship in this sector, it is critical to identify the drivers of producers’ antibiotic use. This study assessed the determinants of antibiotic use in small-scale food animal production through simulated client visits to veterinary supply stores and surveys with households that owned food animals (n = 117) in Ecuador. Eighty percent of households with food animals owned chickens and 78% of those with chickens owned fewer than 10 birds. Among the households with small-scale food animals, 21% reported giving antibiotics to their food animals within the last six months. Simulated client visits indicated that veterinary sales agents frequently recommended inappropriate antibiotic use, as 66% of sales agents recommended growth promoting antibiotics, and 48% of sales agents recommended an antibiotic that was an inappropriate class for disease treatment. In contrast, few sales agents (3%) were willing to sell colistin, an antibiotic banned for veterinary use in Ecuador as of January 2020, which supports the effectiveness of government regulation in antibiotic stewardship. The cumulative evidence provided by this study indicates that veterinary sales agents play an active role in promoting indiscriminate and inappropriate use of antibiotics in small-scale food animal production.

IDENTIFIKASI BAKTERI Escherichia coli PENGHASIL Extended Spectrum β-Lactamase DARI SWAB RECTAL SAPI PERAH MENGGUNAKAN METODE VITEK-2 DI KUD TANI WILIS SENDANG KABUPATEN TULUNGAGUNG

Antibiotic resistance in animals and humans has become a global problem that needs attention. The use of antibiotics in inappropriate on food-producing animals can lead to resistance many of the pathogenic bacteria to the various types of antibiotics, one of which is the Escherichia coli (E. coli) which produces extended spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL). The aim of this study was to isolate and identified ESBL- E. coli isolate from dairy cow rectal swabs in Sendang, Tulungagung district using the Vitek-2 method. The number of rectal swab samples used in the present study was 50. The result of the study showed that from all of the samples could be isolated and indentified E. coli, based on the colony characteristics on EMBA and biochemical test. Based on the double disc synergy test method using antibiotic disc amoxicylyn-clavulanate, ceftriaxone, aztreonam, ceftazidime and cefotaxime, 10 isolates could be identify els ESBL- E. coli. furthermore 3 out of 10 isolates DDST positives were confirmed ESBL- E. coli using Vitek-2 method.

Changes in antibiotic resistance in animals.

Surveys in low- and middle-income countries reveal emerging hotspots of resistance

"Role of Veterinary in the Development of Antibiotic Resistance"

Without exception, an estimated 50% of all antimicrobials serve veterinary purposes all over the world. Bacteria that inescapably develop antibiotic resistance in animals encompass food-borne pathogens, opportunistic pathogens and commensal bacteria. The accumulation of resistant bacteria by the use of antibiotics in veterinary medicine and the spread of such bacteria via veterinary medicine are still being discussed. Available epidemiological methods alone are often insufficient to accurately describe the relationships between veterinary antibiotic use and resistance [1]. Therefore, the veterinary contribution to human antibiotic resistance remains uncertain, with opinion ranging from globally negligibleor irrelevant to one of major concern [2].

Eubiotics for Food Security at Farm Level: Yeast Cell Wall Products and Their Antimicrobial Potential Against Pathogenic Bacteria.

The population increase in the last century was the first cause of the industrialization of animal productions, together with the necessity to satisfy the high food demand and the lack of space and land for the husbandry practices. As a consequence, the farmers moved from extensive to intensive agricultural systems and introduced new practices, such as the administration of antimicrobial drugs. Antibiotics were then used as growth promoters and for disease prevention. The uncontrolled and continuous use of antibiotics contributed to the spread of antibiotic resistance in animals, and this had adverse impacts on human health. This emergence led the European Union, in 2003, to ban the marketing and use of antibiotics as growth promoters, and for prophylaxis purposes from January 2006. This ban caused problems in farms, due to the decrease in animal performances (weight gain, feed conversion ratio, reproduction, etc.), and the rise in the incidence of certain diseases, such as those induced by Clostridium perfringens, Salmonella, Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes. The economic losses due to the ban increased the interest in researching alternative strategies for the prophylaxis of infectious diseases and for health and growth promotion, such as feed additives. Yeast-based materials, such as cell wall extract, represent promising alternatives to antibiotics, on the base of their prebiotic activity and their claimed capacity to bind enteropathogenic bacteria. Several authors reported examples of the effectiveness of yeast cell wall products in adsorbing bacteria, but there is a lack of knowledge on the mechanisms involved in this interaction. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the current approaches used for the control of pathogenic bacteria in feed, with a particular focus on the use of yeast-derived materials proposed to control zoonoses at farm level, and on their effect on animal health.

Antibiotic usage, residues and resistance genes from food animals to human and environment: An Indian scenario

Antibiotics are majorly used in food animals for growth promotion and prophylactic purposes in public health and environment. The aim of this review is mainly to discuss about the antibiotics usage in poultry, livestock and aquaculture sectors, particularly in India, and the identification of antibiotic resistance in animals, their corresponding antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) (if investigated) and their dissemination among environmental compartments in various parts of the country. It also discusses about the classification and mechanism of action of different antibiotics. It reports the risks, benefits, ARGs development mechanisms from food animals to humans and to the environment. Most of the current studies are done in the medical field on regulating/restricting antibiotic usage and tracking the propagation of ARGs in bacterial samples of sick patients and also report the identification of antibiotics and ARGs in wastewater treatment plant effluents across various countries. This study mainly reviews the evolution and transportation of ARGs in detail for Indian scenario.

Restricting the use of antibiotics in food-producing animals and its associations with antibiotic resistance in food-producing animals and human beings: a systematic review and meta-analysis

SummaryBackgroundAntibiotic use in human medicine, veterinary medicine, and agriculture has been linked to the rise of antibiotic resistance globally. We did a systematic review and meta-analysis to summarise the effect that interventions to reduce antibiotic use in food-producing animals have on the presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in animals and in humans.MethodsOn July 14, 2016, we searched electronic databases (Agricola, AGRIS, BIOSIS Previews, CAB s, MEDLINE, Embase, Global Index Medicus, ProQuest Dissertations, Science Citation Index) and the grey literature. The search was updated on Jan 27, 2017. Inclusion criteria were original studies that reported on interventions to reduce antibiotic use in food-producing animals and compared presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria between intervention and comparator groups in animals or in human beings. We extracted data from included studies and did meta-analyses using random effects models. The main outcome assessed was the risk difference in the proportion of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.FindingsA total of 181 studies met inclusion criteria. Of these, 179 (99%) described antibiotic resistance outcomes in animals, and 81 (45%) of these studies were included in the meta-analysis. 21 studies described antibiotic resistance outcomes in humans, and 13 (62%) of these studies were included in the meta-analysis. The pooled absolute risk reduction of the prevalence of antibiotic resistance in animals with interventions that restricted antibiotic use commonly ranged between 10 and 15% (total range 0–39), depending on the antibiotic class, sample type, and bacteria under assessment. Similarly, in the human studies, the pooled prevalence of antibiotic resistance reported was 24% lower in the intervention groups compared with control groups, with a stronger association seen for humans with direct contact with food-producing animals.InterpretationInterventions that restrict antibiotic use in food-producing animals are associated with a reduction in the presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in these animals. A smaller body of evidence suggests a similar association in the studied human populations, particularly those with direct exposure to food-producing animals. The implications for the general human population are less clear, given the low number of studies. The overall findings have directly informed the development of WHO guidelines on the use of antibiotics in food-producing animals.FundingWorld Health Organization.

Caractérisation d’<em>Escherichia coli</em> résistant aux antibiotiques dans différents systèmes avicoles de la province de l’Est et de la ville de Kigali au Rwanda

La résistance aux antibiotiques est devenue une préoccupa­tion de santé publique mondiale car un grand nombre de bactéries résistantes émergent continuellement. Les animaux ont été signalés comme l’une des sources de bactéries résistantes aux antibiotiques qui peuvent être transférées aux humains. Afin d’enrichir les données sur la résistance aux antibiotiques chez les animaux au Rwanda, une étude transversale a été menée dans la province de l’Est et dans la ville de Kigali pour isoler Escherichia coli présent dans des élevages de volailles en plein air et dans des élevages commerciaux. Des échan­tillons de matières fécales ont été prélevés dans 294 fermes avicoles et des souches d’E. coli ont été isolées et identifiées. Au total, 241 isolats d’E. coli ont été soumis à un test de sen­sibilité aux antibiotiques en utilisant cinq antibiotiques (gen­tamicine, streptomycine, rifampicine, doxycycline et érythro­mycine). L’utilisation d’antibiotiques chez les volailles était faible dans les élevages de volaille en plein air (30,9 %) com­parativement aux élevages de poules pondeuses et de pou­lets de chair (100 %). Parmi les 151 éleveurs qui ont déclaré utiliser des antibiotiques chez les volailles, près de la moitié (49,7 %) ont toujours utilisé des antibiotiques sur ordonnance vétérinaire. Sur les 241 isolats d’E. coli, 43,2 % présentaient une résistance multiple à quatre des cinq antibiotiques testés. Presque tous les isolats (98,8 %) étaient résistants à l’érythro­mycine, 78,8 % étaient résistants à la streptomycine, 77,6 % étaient résistants à la doxycycline, 69,3 % étaient résistants à la rifampicine et quelques-uns seulement étaient résistants à la gentamicine (3,7 %). Aucune différence significative statis­tiquement n’a été observée en ce qui concerne la résistance des isolats aux antibiotiques selon le type de système d’éle­vage. Toutefois, la résistance des isolats à la doxycycline a été significativement plus élevée dans les fermes où l’utilisa­tion d’antibiotiques a été signalée (84 %) que dans les fermes où l’utilisation d’antibiotiques n’a pas été signalée (70 %). La résistance aux antibiotiques d’E. coli observée montre l’exis­tence d’une source potentielle de résistance qui peut être transférée aux bactéries pathogènes et avoir un impact sur les humains et les animaux.

Application of genomic technologies to measure and monitor antibiotic resistance in animals.

One of the richest reservoirs of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and genes, animal intestinal microbiota contributes to the spread of antibiotic resistance in the environment and, potentially, to human pathogens. Both culture-based genomic technology and culture-independent metagenomics have been developed to investigate the abundance and diversity of antibiotic resistance genes. The characteristics, strengths, limitations, and challenges of these genomic approaches are discussed in this review in the context of antibiotic resistance in animals. We also discuss the advances in single-cell genomics and its potential for surveillance of antibiotic resistance in animals.

Antibiotic use and resistance in animals: Belgian initiatives.

The widespread use of antibiotics in animals is causing concerns about the growing risk for development and the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Antibiotic consumption is higher in animals than in humans as reported in a joint publication of EFSA (European Food Safety Agency), ECDC (European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control), and EMA (European Medicines Agency) using data from 2011 and 2012. Both in humans and animals, positive associations between the consumption of antibiotics and resistant bacteria are observed. Responsible use of antibiotics in humans and animals should therefore be promoted. In this paper some general aspects of antibiotic resistance such as microbiological versus clinical resistance, intrinsic versus acquired resistance, resistance mechanisms, and transfer of resistance are briefly introduced. In 2012, the Belgian Center of Expertise on Antimicrobial Consumption and Resistance in Animals (AMCRA) was founded. Its mission is to collect and analyze all data related to antibiotic use and resistance in animals in Belgium and to communicate these findings in a neutral and objective manner. One of AMCRA's 10 objectives is a 50% reduction in antibiotic consumption in veterinary medicine in Belgium by 2020. The aim of this paper is to report on the achievements of this national project. The Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO, Merelbeke-Melle), in collaboration with Ghent University, is currently working on three nationally funded projects on antibiotic resistance in animal husbandry. In the first project, an in vitro model is used to study the influence of low antibiotic concentrations due to carry-over after production and usage of medicated feed on the development of resistance in the pig gut. Part of that project is to develop a quantitative risk assessment model. A second project focuses on tracking excreted antibiotics used in pig rearing and their influence on the development of antibiotic resistance in pig manure and the environment. In the last project, the relation between the use of biocides in animal husbandry and antibiotic resistance development are being studied. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Antibiotic resistance in animals against various diseases: a review

The antimicrobial agents in the 1930s (sulfonamides) and 1940s (penicillin) revolutionized human medicine by substantially reducing morbidity and mortality rates from bacterial diseases. Antimicrobial use in animals originated over 50 years ago when chlortetracycline fermentation waste was found to enhance animal growth and health. Since then, major changes have taken place in food animal production as well as in companion animal medicine. However, it was soon observed that bacteria could become resistant to antimicrobials, and resistant strains emerged shortly after the introduction of every new antimicrobial drug.

Bacterial Etiology of Skin and Wound Infections along with Antibiogram Profiling in Reference to Emerging Antibiotic Resistance in Animals

The present study demonstrated bacterial etiology of skin affections and their antibiogram profiling of different animal species of various age groups. A total of 255 samples from cattle, buffalo, dogs, goats, sheep, camel and horses were collected over a period of two years (2012-2014) from Mathura, (U.P.) India, and nearby surrounding areas. Clinical samples were collected from variety of skin disorders, subjected to laboratory isolation and identifica- tion as per standard protocols. The bacterial infection, Staphylococcus aureus, was the most common isolate (36.22 %), followed by E. coli (34.59 %), Pseudomonas (20.54), Bacillus (16.21), Klebsiella (12.43), Micrococcus spp (8.11 %), Strep- tococcus pyogens (7.56), Proteus (6.49), Clostridium (3.78), Gram negative non-lactose fermenter (2.7%), Gram positive non-spore producing bacilli (2.16) and Fusobacterium (0.54 %). Bacterial isolates obtained were subjected to in vitro antibiotic sensitivity testing by disc diffusion method against 23 commercially available antimicrobial discs. Results of the current study revealed maximum sensitivity to gatifloxacin (94.03%), amikacin (85.7%), mild sensitivity to spar- floxacin (44.85%) and gentamicin (43.48%); emergence of multi-drug resistant bacterial strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, E.coli appeared to be an important finding. Present study is intended to document the complex microbial inhabitants of wounds from animals and their antimicrobial sensitivity pattern and strongly recommended the use of antimicrobial sensitivity testing to know the rapidly changing pattern of antibiotic activity. The study will further aid to the existing literature for planning new alternative therapeutic strategies against rising global health havoc of multidrug resistance.

One Medicine One Science: a framework for exploring challenges at the intersection of animals, humans, and the environment.

Characterizing the health consequences of interactions among animals, humans, and the environment in the face of climatic change, environmental disturbance, and expanding human populations is a critical global challenge in today's world. Exchange of interdisciplinary knowledge in basic and applied sciences and medicine that includes scientists, health professionals, key sponsors, and policy experts revealed that relevant case studies of monkeypox, influenza A, tuberculosis, and HIV can be used to guide strategies for anticipating and responding to new disease threats such as the Ebola and Chickungunya viruses, as well as to improve programs to control existing zoonotic diseases, including tuberculosis. The problem of safely feeding the world while preserving the environment and avoiding issues such as antibiotic resistance in animals and humans requires cooperative scientific problem solving. Food poisoning outbreaks resulting from Salmonella growing in vegetables have demonstrated the need for knowledge of pathogen evolution and adaptation in developing appropriate countermeasures for prevention and policy development. Similarly, pesticide use for efficient crop production must take into consideration bee population declines that threaten the availability of the two-thirds of human foods that are dependent on pollination. This report presents and weighs the objective merits of competing health priorities and identifies gaps in knowledge that threaten health security, to promote discussion of major public policy implications such that they may be decided with at least an underlying platform of facts.