Pepper Anthracnose Research Articles

Significance of Microsclerotia in the Epidemiology of Black Pepper Anthracnose and an Approach for Disease Management in Nurseries

AbstractAnthracnose incited by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. and Sacc. is a wide spread and economically important disease of black pepper. In the present study, role of microsclerotia (MS) in the trans‐seasonal perpetuation of C. gloeosporioides was investigated. Microscopical examination of the runner shoots exhibiting necrotic lesions revealed the presence of dark, melanized structures which resembled MS. The excised necrotic regions when subjected to high humidity produced acervulus with setae. Under in vitro conditions, C. gloeosporioides produced MS predominantly on the aerial surface as inseparable congregations, enmeshed in the mycelial mats in potato dextrose broth and as individual units 7–8 days after incubation on glass slides. Sequential events in the formation of MS included germination of conidia, formation of conidial anastomosis tubes, aggregation of hyphae, and the formation of melanized microsclerotial bodies. Three types of microsclerotial germination were observed under in vitro conditions viz., sporogenic, myceliogenic and both. PCR confirmation with CgInt species‐specific primer and ITS4 resulted in 450‐bp amplification. Since, runner shoots are predominantly used as propagating material in black pepper, an approach was devised to manage anthracnose under nursery conditions by treating the 2‐ to 3‐node cuttings (nursery planting material) with carbendazim (12%)—mancozeb (63%) @ 0.1% for 30 min. The results of the study suggests a new facet in the disease cycle of black pepper anthracnose, indicating that the pathogen survives as microsclerotia in planta and could act as a potential source of inoculum.

고추 역병과 탄저병에 대한 인산염 화합물의 방제 효과

고추 역병과 탄저병에 대한 인산염 화합물의 방제 효과

Isolation and characterization of Colletotrichum coccodes from potato in Bulgaria

The fungus Colletotrichum coccodes (synonyms C. atramentarium and C. phomoides) is one of the common pathogens on vegetables of Solanaceae family. It causes fruit anthracnose of tomato, pepper and eggplant and black dot of potato. The fruit anthracnose was relatively well studied in Bulgaria but the information about potato black dot is still very scarce. The objective of this work was to characterize the isolates obtained from different potato parts (tubers, stolons, roots, stem bases) bearing microsclerotia. Conventional and molecular approaches were applied in the study. Three solid nutrient media were used for morphological and cultural description of the pathogen. For molecular investigation representative C. coccodes isolates were cultivated in potato dextrose broth. Total DNA was extracted directly from mycelium. C. coccodes-specific nested primers Cc1NF1/Cc2NR1 were used for PCR amplification. Pathogenicity test was performed on detached fruits of tomato, pepper and eggplant. All studied isolates showed morphological and cultural characteristics typical of C. coccodes although some differences were observed. PCR amplification with nested primer set gave a single specific PCR band with expected size (~350 bp) confirming the affiliation of studied isolates to C. coccodes. Pathogenicity of isolates was proven and the most pronounced symptoms were expressed on tomato fruits. C. coccodes isolates from potato were able to infect successfully other solanaceous hosts and could play a role as inoculum source for them. This should be taken into consideration in crop rotation.

Molecular and phenotypic characterization of Colletotrichum species associated with anthracnose disease in peppers from Sichuan Province, China.

The anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum species is an important disease that primarily causes fruit rot in pepper. Eighty-eight strains representing seven species of Colletotrichum were obtained from rotten pepper fruits in Sichuan Province, China, and characterized according to morphology and the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) sequence. Fifty-two strains were chosen for identification by phylogenetic analyses of multi-locus sequences, including the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and the β-tubulin (TUB2), actin (ACT), calmodulin (CAL) and GAPDH genes. Based on the combined datasets, the 88 strains were identified as Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, C. siamense, C. fructicola, C. truncatum, C. scovillei, and C. brevisporum, and one new species was detected, described as Colletotrichum sichuanensis. Notably, C. siamense and C. scovillei were recorded for the first time as the causes of anthracnose in peppers in China. In addition, with the exception of C. truncatum, this is the first report of all of the other Colletotrichum species studied in pepper from Sichuan. The fungal species were all non-host-specific, as the isolates were able to infect not only Capsicum spp. but also Pyrus pyrifolia in pathogenicity tests. These findings suggest that the fungal species associated with anthracnose in pepper may inoculate other hosts as initial inoculum.

Plant Growth Promotion and Antagonistic Activities Against Anthracnose of Burkholderia sp. LPN-2 Strain

A rhizobacterium LPN-2, which showed strong antifungal activity and auxin producing ability, was isolated from a farmland in North Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. Based on analysis of the 16S rDNA sequence, strain LPN-2 was identified as a novel strain of Burkholderia and was designated as Burkholderia sp. LPN-2. In vitro experiments showed that the isolated stain LPN-2 significantly produced auxin within 48 hr incubation. In order to check for PGPR function we performed in vivo growth promoting test in different crops, including mung bean, pea and cabbage. Application of Burkholderia sp. LPN-2 showed dramatic growth promoting effect on all the tested plants. We also confirmed siderophore and cellulase productions by Burkholderia sp. LPN-2 using CAS blue agar and CMC plate test. Further treatment with LPN-2 and the crude culture broth was effective in suppressing anthracnose in vitro test and also reduced incidence and severity of anthracnose in apple and pepper. Taken together, we conclude that Burkholderia sp. LPN-2 might be used as organic fertilizer for effective crop production in organic farming.

CglCUT1 gene required for cutinase activity and pathogenicity of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides causing anthracnose of Camellia oleifera

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is the causal agent of Camellia oleifera anthracnose, mainly infecting fruits and leaves. The fungus secretes degrading enzymes to destroy the cuticle of aerial plant parts and help infect the host successfully. To validate whether a cutinase gene (CglCUT1) was required for cutinase activity and pathogenicity of C. gloeosporioides, the CglCUT1 gene was cloned and analyzed. The characterization of CglCUT1 predicted protein suggests that the cloned DNA encoded a cutinase in C. gloeosporioides affecting C. oleifera. The CglCUT1 showed a high homology to those from C. gloeosporioides causing papaya anthracnose and C. capsici causing pepper anthracnose, as well as those of other ascomycetes. The whole CglCUT1 gene was knocked-out and the knockout mutant (∆CglCUT39) was subsequently complemented using Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transformation. The knockout transformants exhibited significant decreases in cutinase activity and virulence compared with the wild-type strain. The complemented transformants of the disrupted transformant ∆CglCUT39 showed a significant increase in cutinase activity and virulence compared with the disrupted transformant ∆CglCUT39. This study suggests that the CglCUT1 gene has a positive effect on fungal virulence of the hemibiotrophic C. gloeosporioides on C. oleifera.

Systematic Analysis of the Anticancer Agent Taxol-Producing Capacity in Colletotrichum Species and Use of the Species for Taxol Production

Paclitaxel (taxol) has long been used as a potent anticancer agent for the treatment of many cancers. Ever since the fungal species Taxomyces andreanae was first shown to produce taxol in 1993, many endophytic fungal species have been recognized as taxol accumulators. In this study, we analyzed the taxol-producing capacity of different Colletotrichum spp. to determine the distribution of a taxol biosynthetic gene within this genus. Distribution of the taxadiene synthase (TS) gene, which cyclizes geranylgeranyl diphosphate to produce taxadiene, was analyzed in 12 Colletotrichum spp., of which 8 were found to contain the unique skeletal core structure of paclitaxel. However, distribution of the gene was not limited to closely related species. The production of taxol by Colletotrichum dematium, which causes pepper anthracnose, depended on the method in which the fungus was stored, with the highest production being in samples stored under mineral oil. Based on its distribution among Colletotrichum spp., the TS gene was either integrated into or deleted from the bacterial genome in a species-specific manner. In addition to their taxol-producing capacity, the simple genome structure and easy gene manipulation of these endophytic fungal species make them valuable resources for identifying genes in the taxol biosynthetic pathway.

Changes in the Aggressiveness and Fecundity of Hot Pepper Anthracnose Pathogen (Colletotricum acutatum) under Elevated CO2 and Temperature over 100 Infection Cycles.

We observed the changes in aggressiveness and fecundity of the anthracnose pathogen Colletotrichum acutatum on hot pepper, under the ambient and the twice-ambient treatments. Artificial infection was repeated over 100 cycles for ambient (25°C/400 ppm CO2) and twice-ambient (30°C/700 ppm CO2) growth chamber conditions, over 3 years. During repeated infection cycles (ICs) on green-pepper fruits, the aggressiveness (incidence [% of diseased fruits among 20 inoculated fruits] and severity [lesion length in mm] of infection) and fecundity (the average number of spores per five lesions) of the pathogen were measured in each cycle and compared between the ambient and twice-ambient treatments, and also between the early (ICs 31–50) and late (ICs 81–100) generations. In summary, the pathogen’s aggressiveness and fecundity were significantly lower in the late generation. It is likely that aggressiveness and fecundity of C. acutatum may be reduced as global CO2 and temperatures increase.

Antifungal activity of rimocidin and a new rimocidin derivative BU16 produced by Streptomyces mauvecolor BU16 and their effects on pepper anthracnose.

The objective of this study was to explore antifungal metabolites targeting fungal cell envelope and to evaluate the control efficacy against anthracnose development in pepper plants. A natural product library comprising 3000 microbial culture extracts was screened via an adenylate kinase (AK)-based cell lysis assay to detect antifungal metabolites targeting the cell envelope of plant-pathogenic fungi. The culture extract of Streptomyces mauvecolor strain BU16 displayed potent AK-releasing activity. Rimocidin and a new rimocidin derivative, BU16, were identified from the extract as active constituents. BU16 is a tetraene macrolide containing a six-membered hemiketal ring with an ethyl group side chain instead of the propyl group in rimocidin. Rimocidin and BU16 showed broad-spectrum antifungal activity against various plant-pathogenic fungi and demonstrated potent control efficacy against anthracnose development in pepper plants. Antifungal metabolites produced by S.mauvecolor strain BU16 were identified to be rimocidin and BU16. The compounds displayed potent control efficacy against pepper anthracnose. Rimocidin and BU16 would be active ingredients of disease control agents disrupting cell envelope of plant-pathogenic fungi. The structure and antifungal activity of rimocidin derivative BU16 is first described in this study.

Utility of internally transcribed spacer region of rDNA (ITS) and β-tubulin gene sequences to infer genetic diversity and migration patterns of Colletotrichum truncatum infecting Capsicum spp.

Anthracnose is among the most economically important diseases affecting pepper (Capsicum spp.) production in the tropics and subtropics. Of the three species of Colletotrichum implicated as causal agents of pepper anthracnose, C.truncatum is considered to be the most destructive in agro-ecosystems worldwide. However, the genetic variation and the migration potential of C.truncatum infecting pepper are not known. Five populations were selected for study and a two-locus (internally transcribed spacer region, ITS1-5.8S-ITS2, and β-tubulin, β-TUB) sequence data set was generated and used in the analyses. Sequences of the ITS region were less informative than β -tubulin gene sequences based on comparisons of DNA polymorphism indices. Trinidad had the highest genetic diversity and also had the largest effective population size in pairwise comparisons with the other populations. The Trinidad population also demonstrated significant genetic differentiation from the other populations. AMOVA and STRUCTURE analyses both suggested significant genetic variation within populations more so than among populations. A consensus Maximum Likelihood tree based on β-TUB gene sequences revealed very little intraspecific diversity for all isolates except for Trinidad. Two clades consisting solely of Trinidad isolates may have diverged earlier than the other isolates. There was also evidence of directional migration among the five populations. These findings may have a direct impact on the development of integrated disease management strategies to control C.truncatum infection in pepper.

유기농업자재와 유기합성 살균제(Iminoctadine tris + thiram) 교호살포에 따른 고추 탄저병 방제 효과

Pepper anthracnose caused by Collectotrichum acutaum has been known as one of the most damaging diseases of pepper, which has reduced not only yield but also quality of pepper produce almost every year. This study was conducted to develop control strategy against pepper anthracnose by alternate application of agricultural organic materials and chemical fungicides. The alternate application effect of agricultural organic materials and chemical fungicides for controlling pepper anthracnose were examined in vitro and in the field. First, thirteen microbial agents and twenty two agricultural organic materials were screened for antifungal activity against C. acutatum through the dual culture method and bioassay. As a result, one microbial agent (Bacillus subtilis QST-713) and three agricultural organic materials (sulfur, bordeaux mixture, marine algae extracts) were found to show high inhibition effect against C. acutatum. In the field test, when Iminoctadine tris+thiram, a chemical fungicide for controlling pepper anthracnose, was sprayed, it reduced disease incidence by 89.5%. Meanwhile Sulfur, bordeaux mixture, copper, marine algae extracts and Bacillus subtilis QST-713 showed low disease incidence at the range of 33.1~81.0%. However, when Iminoctadine tris+thiram and agricultural organic materials(bordeaux mixture, marine algae extracts) were applied to pepper fruits alternately two times at 7 days interval, there was a 81.7 and 87.1% reduction in disease, respectively. Consequently, the alternate spray of chemical fungicide (Iminoctadine tris+thiram) and agricultural organic materials (bordeaux mixture, marine algae extracts) could be recommended as a control method to reduce the using amount of chemical fungicide.

길항세균 Bacillus sp. KBC1004를 이용한 고추탄저병의 생물학적 방제제 개발

길항세균 Bacillus sp. KBC1004를 이용한 고추탄저병의 생물학적 방제제 개발

Antimicrobial activity of chitosan enriched with lemongrass oil against anthracnose of bell pepper

Abstract Essential oils have been investigated as potential additives for polysaccharide based coatings. In this study the effectiveness of combining lemongrass essential oil with chitosan as an edible coating for bell pepper was examined. Lemongrass essential oil at concentrations of 0.5% and 1.0% was incorporated into 0.5% and 1.0% chitosan solution and evaluated as a means of controlling anthracnose of bell pepper in vitro and in vivo. Fungal growth was effectively controlled by 0.5% and 1.0% EO in vitro. The application of 1.0% chitosan was determined as an effective concentration, and was used in subsequent in vivo analysis as a base coating for maintaining the safety and quality of fresh bell peppers stored at room temperature for 21 days. EO was found to be less effective in vivo, however the combination of EO with CH did enhance the antimicrobial activity of the coating. Quality of the fruits, as determined by weight loss, firmness, colour, SSC and TA, was maintained throughout the storage by the chitosan coating solely and in combination with EO. The in vivo results demonstrated that, as an edible coating, the application of 1.0CH + 0.5 EO was significantly better at maintaining the fruit quality, however, with the anthracnose disease incidence results in consideration, chitosan individually was more effective in the extension of fruit shelf life.

고추 탄저병에 대한 보르도액의 방제 효과

Abstract It was conducted to evaluate the control efficacy of Bordeaux mixture on pepper anthracnose invitro and in vivo. The suppressive efficacy of Bordeaux mixture on mycelial growth and spore germination ofColletotrichum acutatum was investigated on PDA, cellophane membranes and pepper fruits, respectively.Furthermore, its control value was evaluated on detached pepper fruits inoculated with C. acutatum by woundand non-wound inoculation method, and in fields. The mycelial growth of C. acutatum JC24 was inhibited by90.0% on PDA amended with 937 µg mL −1 of Bordeaux mixture. While the spore germination of C.acutatum JC24 was inhibited perfectly on cellophane membranes treated at 187 µg mL −1 of Bordeaux mixture,that on fruits inoculated with the pathogen by wound inoculation and non-wound inoculation method wasinhibited by 88.1% and 91.3%, respectively. Although the control value on fruits treated with 937 µg mL −1 ofBordeaux mixture was 17.6% in wound inoculation method, it was 58.8% in non-wound inoculation method.In fields, when Bordeaux mixture was sprayed five times at 14 day-intervals, it showed 55.7% and 61.7% ofcontrol value in 2012 and 2013, respectively. We think Bordeaux mixture was able to use as an eco-friendlyorganic farming material to control pepper anthracnose based on the above-mentioned results.Key words Bordeaux mixture, eco-friendly organic farming material, pepper anthracnose

파인 오일과 수산화동 혼합물에 의한 고추 세균점무늬병과 탄저병의 방제 효과

본 연구는 파인 오일과 수산화동의 혼용에 의한 고추의 세균성 점무늬병과 탄저병에 대한 방제 효과를 구명하고자 수행하였다. 세균성 점무늬병에 대한 방제 효과는 파인 오일만 단독 처리한 경우 발병엽률 59.6%와 방제 효과 28.9%로 나타났지만 파인 오일과 수산화동을 4:1로 혼용 처리하였을 때 발병엽률 20.0%와 방제효과 76.1%로 가장 효과적이었다. 탄저병에 대한 방제 효과는 파인 오일만 단독 처리한 경우 발병률 79.1%와 방제 효과 7.4%로 나타났지만 파인 오일과 수산화동을 4:1로 혼용 처리하였을 때 발병률 49.9%와 방제 효과 41.7%로 가장 효과적이었다. 이상의 결과는 고추의 세균성 점무늬병과 탄저병의 발병을 파인 오일과 수산화동을 4:1로 혼용 처리함으로서 친환경적으로 방제할 수 있음을 나타낸다. This research was performed to examine the protective activities of the mixtures of pine oil and copper hydroxide against bacterial spot and anthracnose on pepper plants. As for bacterial spot, the treatment of pine oil alone displayed high disease incidence (59.6%) and low protective effect (28.9%). In comparison, the treatments of mixtures and copper hydroxide alone showed protective activities of 66.8-76.1%. The mixture of pine oil and copper hydroxide (4:1) suppressed the most effectively bacterial spot on pepper. On the other hand, the mixture of pine oil and copper hydroxide (4:1) also showed the strongest protective effect against pepper anthracnose among the 4 treatments tested; its disease incidence and disease control value were 49.8% and 41.7%, respectively. The other treatments showed low protective activities with control values of 7.4-17.1%. These results suggested that the mixture of pine oil and copper hydroxide (4:1) can be used for the environmental-friendly disease control of bacterial spot and anthracnose on pepper.

Bacillus sp. CS-52를 이용한 고추 탄저병 (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) 방제 특성

This study was carried out in order to develop a biological control of anthracnose of red pepper caused by fungal pathogens. In particular, this study focuses on the Colletotrichum species, which includes important fungal pathogens causing a great deal of damage to red pepper. Antagonistic bacteria were isolated from the soil of pepper fields, which were then tested for biocontrol activity against the Colletotrichum gloeosporioides anthracnose pathogen of pepper. Based on the 16S rRNA sequence analysis, the isolated bacterial strain CS-52 was identical to Bacillus sp. The culture broth of Bacillus sp. CS-52 had antifungal activity toward the hyphae and spores of C. gloeosporioides. Moreover, the substances with antifungal activity were optimized when Bacillus sp. CS-52 was grown aerobically in a medium composed of 0.5% glucose, 0.7% K2HPO4, 0.2% KH2PO4, 0.3% NH4NO3, 0.01% MnSO4·7H2O, and 0.15% yeast extract at 30℃. The inhibition of spore formation resulting from cellulase, siderophores, and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), were produced at 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h, respectively. Bacillus sp. CS-52 also exhibited its potent fungicidal activity against anthracnose in an in vivo test, at a level of 70% when compared to chemical fungicides. These results identified substances with antifungal activity produced by Bacillus sp. CS-52 for the biological control of major plant pathogens in red pepper. Further studies will investigate the synergistic effect promoting better growth and antifungal activity by the formulation of substances with antifungal activity.

Selection and a 3-Year Field Trial of Sorangium cellulosum KYC 3262 Against Anthracnose in Hot Pepper.

KYC 3262 was selected as a biocontrol agent against anthracnose on hot pepper from 813 extracts of myxobacterial isolates. Dual culture with Colletotrichum acutatum and 813 myxobacterial extracts was conducted, and 19 extracts were selected that inhibited germination and mycelial growth of C. acutatum. All selections were Sorangium cellulosum, which are cellulolytic myxobacteria from soil. With the infection bioassay on detached fruits in airtight containers, KYC 3262, KYC 3512, KYC 3279, and KYC 3584 were selected. The listed four myxobacteria were cultured in CSG/1 liquid media, and harvested filtrates were sprayed on the infected fruits. KYC 3262 was selected from the studies of attached fruit in a greenhouse study. KYC 3262 filtrate was applied for 3 years (from 2011 to 2013) in a field study in Asan, Republic of Korea. Control values of the KYC 3262 in the field were 31%, 89%, and 82% in 2011, 2012, and 2013, whereas values of the fungicide spray treatment were 19%, 97%, and 91%, respectively. Yields (kg/20 plants) of the KYC 3262 were 2.66 kg and 18.6 kg in 2011 and 2013, respectively, and those of the fungicide treatment were 2.0 kg and 20.2 kg, in 2011 and 2013, respectively.

Characterization of Colletotrichum spp. causing anthracnose of bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) in Trinidad

Anthracnose fruit rot of pepper (Capsicum spp.) is an economically important disease in many countries worldwide. This study was conducted to identify and characterize the pathogens responsible for anthracnose disease in bell peppers (C. annuum L.) in Trinidad. Seventy-two percent of all isolates were Colletotrichum truncatum and 28% were C. gloeosporioides. Growth rate and conidia dimensions were reliable morphological markers that allowed differentiation between C. gloeosporioides and C. truncatum isolates. Benomyl sensitivity testing also distinguished between isolates of C. gloeosporioides and C. truncatum. C. truncatum was resistant to benomyl at all concentrations tested while C. gloeosporioides sensu lato was sensitive to concentrations above 0.1 μg ml-1 . Pathogenicity tests demonstrated different levels of resistance to anthracnose in various Capsicum genotypes. C. gloeosporioides sensu lato isolates caused significantly greater damage than C. truncatum isolates regardless of pepper cultivar. PCR with taxon- and species-specific primers produced amplicons of expected band sizes for all Colletotrichum species and only for C. gloeosporioides, respectively. Molecular analysis of ITS and β-tubulin sequences positioned C. gloeosporioides sensu lato and C. truncatum isolates from bell pepper into separate species-specific clusters.

살균제 효과 검정을 위한 고추 탄저병의 실내 열매 검정법

Abstract This study was performed to investigate the effect of conidial density, wetness period andtemperature on conidial germination, appressoria formation and disease incidence. While there was notsignificantly correlated between conidial density and temperature, and conidial germination and appressoriaformation, there was a significant correlation between those factors and disease incidence. The longer wetnessperiod was, the higher the ratio of conidial germination, appressoria formation and the disease incidence was.The optimum conidial density, temperature and wetness period was 1× 10 6 conidia mL Š 1 , 30 o C and 5 days,respectively. In case the wetness period was more than 5 days, the typical symptom was not found on pepperfruits because of the overgrowth of mycelia. Using this fruit assay method, which the pepper anthracnosepathogens were inoculated by spraying spore suspension on non-wounded or wounded pepper fruits, controleffect of three fungicides were evaluated against pepper anthracnose by the protective and/or the curativeapplication. Propineb showed high protective control activity, while it showed curative control activity on un-wounded fruits, but did not showed curative control activity on wounded fruits. Tebuconazole, one of curativefungicide, showed higher control activity in non-wound inoculation than wound inoculation. Trifloxystrobin,one of strobilurin group, showed high both protective and control activity against anthracnose. In conclusion,we supposed that the newly developed in vitro pepper fruit assay can be used to evaluate antifungal activityof control agents against pepper anthracnose.Key words Colletotrichum acutatum, fungicide activity, in vitro fruit assay, pepper anthracnose

Exploiting Propolis as an Antimicrobial Edible Coating to Control Post-harvest Anthracnose of Bell Pepper

The application of ethanolic extracted propolis (EEP) as a food coating for bell pepper was evaluated by assessing its ability to inhibit mycelial growth of Colletotrichum capsici and maintain the post-harvest quality of bell pepper. Propolis was extracted with ethanol, and its efficacy in the inhibition of mycelial growth of C. capsici, the causal agent of anthracnose in bell pepper, was assessed in vitro and in vivo. Mycelial growth inhibition was positively related to the EEP concentration with inhibition values reported for 0.25%, 0.50% and 0.75% EEP dilutions as 66.1%, 84.3% and 89%, respectively. Meanwhile, for in vivo studies, 1%, 5% and 10% EEP dilutions were used, which were all found to completely inhibit anthracnose development in artificially inoculated bell peppers stored at 10°C and 90% relative humidity for 28 days. The application of EEP as a coating significantly reduced the incidence of disease and contributed towards moisture retention of the fruit. These factors play a major role in the maintenance of quality of fruits and extended shelf life. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.