Ancient Languages Research Articles

The Illimitable Freedom of the Human Mind: Thomas Jefferson’s Idea of a University by Andrew J. O’Shaughnessy

Reviewed by: The Illimitable Freedom of the Human Mind: Thomas Jefferson’s Idea of a University by Andrew J. O’Shaughnessy Michael Lee The Illimitable Freedom of the Human Mind: Thomas Jefferson’s Idea of a University. By Andrew J. O’Shaughnessy. (Charlottesville and London: University of Virginia Press, 2021. Pp. xviii, 318. $34.95, ISBN 978-0-8139-4648-1.) The Illimitable Freedom of the Human Mind: Thomas Jefferson’s Idea of a University, by Andrew J. O’Shaughnessy, is a biography, an intellectual history, and an institutional history of the early years of the University of Virginia. The weaving together of these three genres is fitting. O’Shaughnessy makes it clear that the university, founded in 1819, was the institutional manifestation of ideas that were central to Thomas Jefferson’s mind and heart. [End Page 136] Jefferson sought to create a university that provided an alternative to the likes of Harvard, Yale, and Princeton, which dominated the intellectual landscape of early America. Jefferson had a deep animosity toward both Federalists (whom he believed to be elitist and aristocratic) and Calvinists (whom he considered narrowly religious and superstitious). He was concerned that the sons of the South were going to northern colleges and being indoctrinated by their ideologies. As an alternative, Jefferson wanted a secular and state-supported college that would be accessible to a broad swath of the population. An educated electorate, he believed, was essential to his vision of an egalitarian democracy. He did not trust the elite, and thus he wanted education to “teach the people to hold government accountable” (p. 4). He designed a school where knowledge was based on empirical evidence rather than dogma and tradition. Thus, he sought to separate religion from the university. Jefferson infused his Enlightenment ideals into the University of Virginia. Northern colleges like Yale and Princeton were wedded to a traditional curriculum that was rooted in the medieval tradition, in which all knowledge came from and glorified God. Many early American colleges were founded to educate clergy, but they also became the de facto training ground for the cultural elite. The purpose of the education they provided was to impart virtue and godliness. These institutions were not designed to impart practical skills for lucrative careers. Thus, the curriculum was dominated by the study of ancient languages and classical texts. Traditional colleges had a low view of the practical physical sciences, such as engineering and medicine. However, Jefferson was committed to including both modern science and modern languages in the curriculum of his university. At the time, this approach was a radical and innovative move. In keeping with his devotion to the Enlightenment and to the pursuit of knowledge over the preservation of tradition, Jefferson made the unusual decision to recruit most of his faculty from Europe, seeking out the best scholars in the world. In the traditional American college, professors were primarily instructors of a well-established curriculum. Expertise in the subject was not particularly important. Rather, their role was to morally and spiritually form their students. Jefferson wanted modern discoveries, decoupled from theological commitments. One of the most radical and innovative features of the University of Virginia was the disestablishment of religion. In early America, higher education was inseparable from Christianity. Many schools were virtually extensions of churches. At other schools it was customary to require students to attend worship services. While Jefferson was alive, no religious services were held anywhere on campus at the University of Virginia. As a secular institution, the university was able to hire James Joseph Sylvester in 1841. Sylvester, an observant Jew, was an immensely accomplished mathematician. A traditional Christian college could have never hired him. The University of Virginia fell short of Jefferson’s ideals. The students were mostly the entitled children of the southern elite. Shortly after his death, evangelical religion grew on campus. The students did not like the European professors. However, the innovations of the University of Virginia anticipated what later became the norm in the American university. O’Shaughnessy’s [End Page 137] work illuminates our understanding of the history of higher education in the United States. Michael Lee Eastern University Copyright © 2023 The Southern Historical Association

On Graph- Syriac Letters Partition

The Syriac language is one of the ancient Semitic languages that appeared in the first century AD. It is currently used in a number of cities in Iraq, Turkey, and others. In this research paper, we tried to apply the work of Ali and Mahmood 2020 on the letters and words in the Syriac language to find a new encoding for them and increase the possibility of reading the message by other people.

To say almost the same thing? A study on cross-linguistic variation in ancient texts and their translations

Abstract This article presents a study of several parallel corpora of historical languages and their translations. The aligned corpora are the result of a large crowdsourcing project, named Ugarit, aimed at supporting translation alignment for ancient and historical languages: the study of the resulting translation pairs allows us to observe cross-linguistic dynamics in a range of languages, some of which have never been systematically aligned before. The corpora considered are divided into two distinct groups: English translations of ancient languages, including Greek, Latin, Persian, and Coptic; and translations of ancient Greek into other languages, including Latin, English, Georgian, Italian, and Persian. We evaluated different ratios of word matching across each language pair (one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-one, and many-to-many), and analyzed the resulting trends across the corpus. We propose some observations on how and why different types of alignment links are established in a given language pair, and what factors affect their creation beyond the control of the user: we propose two complementary hypotheses to explain the changes, one based on structural linguistic factors and the other based on cultural difference.

History, Phylogeny, Biodiversity, and New Computer-Based Tools for Efficient Micropropagation and Conservation of Pistachio (Pistacia spp.) Germplasm.

The word "pstk" [pistag], used in the ancient Persian language, is the linguistic root from which the current name "pistachio", used worldwide, derives. The word pistachio is generally used to designate the plants and fruits of a single species: Pistacia vera L. Both the plant and its fruits have been used by mankind for thousands of years, specifically the consumption of its fruits by Neanderthals has been dated to about 300,000 years ago. Native to southern Central Asia (including northern Afghanistan and northeastern Iran), its domestication and cultivation occurred about 3000 years ago in this region, spreading to the rest of the Mediterranean basin during the Middle Ages and finally being exported to America and Australia at the end of the 19th century. The edible pistachio is an excellent source of unsaturated fatty acids, carbohydrates, proteins, dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals and bioactive phenolic compounds that help promote human health through their antioxidant capacity and biological activities. The distribution and genetic diversity of wild and domesticated pistachios have been declining due to increasing population pressure and climatic changes, which have destroyed natural pistachio habitats, and the monoculture of selected cultivars. As a result, the current world pistachio industry relies mainly on a very small number of commercial cultivars and rootstocks. In this review we discuss and summarize the current status of: etymology, origin, domestication, taxonomy and phylogeny by molecular analysis (RAPID, RFLP, AFLP, SSR, ISSR, IRAP, eSSR), main characteristics and world production, germplasm biodiversity, main cultivars and rootstocks, current conservation strategies of both conventional propagation (seeds, cutting, and grafting), and non-conventional propagation methods (cryopreservation, slow growth storage, synthetic seed techniques and micropropagation) and the application of computational tools (Design of Experiments (DoE) and Machine Learning: Artificial Neural Networks, Fuzzy logic and Genetic Algorithms) to design efficient micropropagation protocols for the genus Pistacia.

A Review on Various MODI Text Recognition Techniques

MODI script is an ancient language of the Marathi people. MODI script is used to write the Marathi language, which is the mother language of Maharashtra, India. To understand this ancient language here we analyze text recognition techniques. MODI script was used primarily by administrative people to keep their accounts, as well as most of the revenue documents, were written in MODI language. For recognition of such text, number of image processing techniques are used. The official scriptures of Goa were previously written in this 17th-century Balbodh style of Devanagari, which is currently being restored. It is now a practical visual reminder of the former Maratha era and a specialized research skill; it is a technological key required primarily to access the Maratha state's empirical history through these archive resources. This paper explains the previous analysis of MODI text recognition. MODI text recognition system is well explained with the help of a generalized text recognition system model. The model includes image acquisition, normalization, binarization, segmentation, feature extraction, training, and classification lastly recognized image. Numerous optional strategies that have been used in various identification systems are available for each level. The history of the Maratha dynasty and other significant facts can be revealed in numerous MODI manuscripts by using these different techniques to identify MODI characters. Also, some applications of text recognition are explained in this paper.

Upaya Guru Bahasa Jawa dalam Menerapkan Unggah-Ungguh Basa pada Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Jawa Kelas X Semester Gasal di SMA Negeri 3 Brebes

The background of this research is that there are still many teachers who have not used good efforts or methods in applying upload-ungguh basa to students. The formulation of the problem that can be taken is how the Javanese language teacher's efforts in implementing upload-ungguh basa in class X odd semester Javanese language subjects at SMA Negeri 3 Brebes and the obstacles encountered by the Javanese language teacher in applying upload-ungguh basa to students. The purpose of this study is to describe the form of the Javanese language teacher's efforts in applying upload-ungguh basa in class X odd semester Javanese language subjects at SMA Negeri 3 Brebes and to describe the obstacles encountered by the Javanese language teacher in applying upload-ungguh basa to students. This research is a descriptive type of research, with a qualitative approach. Sources of research data are Javanese language teachers and odd semester X grade students of SMA Negeri 3 Brebes with research data in the form of descriptions of observations, interviews and documentation conducted with Javanese language teachers and odd semester X grade students of SMA Negeri 3 Brebes. The data analysis technique uses data reduction, data presentation and conclusions. After analyzing the data, several research results were found as follows: the efforts made by Javanese language teachers in applying upload-ungguh basa to students include, 1) providing and conveying knowledge about upload-ungguh basa; 2) familiarize students with using the appropriate Javanese language when communicating; 3) conduct questions and answers to students using upload-ungguh base; 4) provide examples to students on how to behave well; 5) explain the learning material using the Javanese language. The obstacles encountered by the teacher when implementing the upload-ungguh base of students include: 1) the low awareness of students about the importance of learning the Javanese language; 2) many young people consider Javanese to be an ancient language; 3) students use Indonesian in everyday.

Көне ұйғыр тіліндегі септіктердің зерттелу барысы

The article discusses the process of researching the ancient Uighur dialects. Although studies of the ancient Turkic languages have been developed in Kazakh science, it can be said that the study of the ancient Uyghur language, a branch and a large branch of these ancient Turkic languages (a large branch, according to foreign scientists, means the ancient Uyghur language - the language of the third Turkic Khaganate), was left without attention. To fill this gap, we reviewed the progress of the study of syllogisms using the works of prominent scientists who studied the ancient Uyghur language. Adverbs play an important role in connecting words in a sentence. In general, our goal, when we write about declensions, is to once again make sure that there is no big difference between the declensions of the Old Turkic language, including the Old Uyghur, and the declensions of modern Turkic languages, and analyze some of them. their features. In the article, we focused on the research of foreign and domestic correspondent scientists on adverbs and tried to compare them. We studied the statements of scientists about adverbs by methods of analysis, comparison and discussion.

The First PhD Theses on Ancient History at the Leningrad State University (1938—1941): on the Formation of Soviet Dissertation Culture

The dissertation files of the postgraduate students in classics of the Leningrad State University and State Academy of the History of Material Culture who had defended their PhD theses in 1938—1941 were taken. These were the files of V. P. Kallistov, E. A. Millior, S. L. Utchenko, G. A. Stratanovsky, K. P. Lampsakov. The author concludes that the patronage of the professor — supervisor, which was based on the assessment of the candidate’s research abilities and knowledge of ancient languages, was the most important for admission to graduate school. Social origin and unseemly facts of biography were not of decisive importance. Scientific supervisors were mainly scientists of the old school — S. A. Zhebelev, S. Ya. Lurie, who independently determined the structure of graduate students’ training, focusing on the historical and philological approach, the use of different types of sources and appropriate critical analysis of the achievements of pre-revolutionary and foreign historiography. The topics of theses shows the desire to include Soviet science in the world, and the high demands — to produce a high-level scientists for teaching ancient history and ancient languages (at the time there was a severe shortage of specialists in these fields of knowledge), as well as to prepare summarizing multi-volume works on history.

ETYMOLOGY OF LATIN AND UKRAINIAN NAMES OF CULTIVATED PLANTS

Plant names are a special thematic group of vocabulary, the formation of which continued at various historical stages of the development of society. Despite the rather powerful domestic tradition of phytonym research, a group of names of cultivated plants remains outside the attention of scientists. The aim of the article is to define the etymology of Latin and Ukrainian names of cultivated plants, to determine the types and mechanisms of motivation of phytonyms, to reconstruct nomination motivators. The research used the etymological analysis of phytonyms and the comparative method, the material was 20 binomial names of cultivated plants. As a result of the study, it was found that the process of naming cultivated plants in Latin and Ukrainian is based on the mechanisms of propositional-dictum and associative-metaphorical motivation. The results confirm the conclusions of modern cognitive studies that in the process of plant nomination, priority is given to propositional-dictum motivation, which records true knowledge about the object of nomination in the onomasiological structure of the name. Since the names of plants are one of the oldest layers of the vocabulary, it is not always possible to define the etymology of the word, especially in Latin, where a significant part of plant names is borrowed through Greek from ancient languages, which are considered the original source. The reconstruction of the motivators of many Latin words is in the polemic field of modern researchers and remains hypothetical. Propositional-dictum motivation is dominated by the predicative-argumental kind with various motivators, the most productive of which are qualitative, destinative and partitative. Associative-terminal motivation in the names of cultivated plants is represented by various models, the most productive of which are sign transfers from the donor zones HUMAN, ANIMAL, NATURAL FACT and ARTIFACT.

A New Frontier: AI and Ancient Language Pedagogy

AbstractIn November 2022, ChatGPT 3.5 was released on a public research preview, gaining notoriety for its ability to pull from a vast body of information to create coherent and digestible bodies of text that accurately respond to queries (OpenAI, 2022). It is able to recognise the grammar and vocabulary of ancient languages, translate passages, and compose texts at an alarmingly accurate and rapid rate. For teachers, this AI has had mixed reviews. Some fear its ability to produce well-written work effortlessly, while others are excited by its abilities to push the boundaries of current teaching practices. This paper explores how well ChatGPT explains grammatical concepts, parses inflected forms, and translates Classical Latin, Ancient Greek, and Classical Sanskrit. Overall, ChatGPT is rather good at working with Classical Latin and Sanskrit, but its abilities with Ancient Greek are deeply problematic. Although it is quite flawed at this time, ChatGPT, when used properly, could become a useful a tool for ancient language study. With proper guiding phrases, students could use this AI to practise vocabulary, check their translations, and rephrase grammatical concepts.

RECOGNIZING TAMIL CHARACTERS IN PALM LEAF MANUSCRIPTS (DEEP LEARNING)

Tamil is an ancient language that has a vast collection of literature written on palm leaves and other materials. Palm leaf manuscripts have been used as a versatile medium to record information on medicine, literature, theatre, and other subjects. Despite the need for digitization and transcription, recognizing cursive characters in palm leaf manuscripts remains a challenging task. This study introduces a novel Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) technique to train the characteristics of palm leaf characters, enabling CNN to significantly classify palm leaf characters during the training phase. Preprocessing of the input image is done using morphological operations to remove noise. Connected component analysis is a technique used in image processing to identify and label the individual connected regions, or components, in a binary image. Connected component Analysis is then used to segment the palm leaf characters, with feature processing including text line spacing, spacing without obstacle, and spacing with an obstacle. Finally, the extracted cursive characters are input into the CNN technique for final classification. Experiments are conducted using collected cursive Tamil palm leaf manuscripts to validate the performance of the proposed CNN with existing deep learning techniques in terms of accuracy, precision, recall, etc.

The voiced and released stop codas of Old Chinese

This paper discusses the property of voicing and releasing in coda stops in Old Chinese, which is of great significance to the phonetic types and historical comparison between Chinese and Tibetan Languages. The nature of Old Chinese is mainly based on the historical comparison between Chinese and Tibetan Languages and Chinese loan words in other languages. For example, in Ancient Tibetan the stop codas were transcribed to voiced letters. The majority of bound function words in Classical Tibetan have two variants based on whether the preceding codas are voiced or not. The /-l(-r)/ coda in the ancient Chinese northern languages and early Sanskrit-Chinese phonetic transcription comes from the /-d/ coda. Old Chinese loan words in Japanese have voiced stop codas. Modern Chinese dialects also have voiced stop codas. In addition, stop codas in Tibetan Xigaze, Balti, Lajiao and other dialects, Xifan yiyu and Qiang languages all have the nature of releasing. The "broken tone" in Chinese is caused by a released glottal stop.

Actual problems of buddhist studies in the researches of scientists of the Institute for Mongolian, Buddhist and Tibetan studies of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences

The article analyzes Buddhist studies conducted by scientists of the Institute for Mongolian, Buddhist and Tibetan Studies of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The issues of the emergence and formation of the institution itself, its main divisions of the institute and the activities of the leading scientists of the institute related to collecting, cataloging and studying written monuments that are kept in the funds of the unique Center of oriental manuscripts and xylographs are considered. The contribution and results of the researches of philosophers, historians, ethnographers, literary critics and linguists engaged in the study of traditional religious culture, rites and rituals, Buddhist philosophy, as well as the features of the socio-political processes of the development of Buddhism in Russia and the countries of Central and East Asia are examined. The legal status of the Buddhist church, monasteries and clergy is considered on the basis of the analysis and translation of a number of archival documents and sources in the Mongolian language, and a brief assessment of the current state, role and influence of the Buddhist church, culture and traditions on society is given. The history of translation activities, in particular, the translation of the Buddhist canon into Mongolian from Tibetan, is highlighted. Attention is drawn to the methods and means of electronic cataloging of written monuments in the Tibetan and ancient Mongolian languages, archival documents developed at the institute, as well as methods for digitizing multimedia sources of technotronic information. It is noted that modern Buddhist monasticism, as well as lay Buddhists in Russia, maintain loyalty and trust in relation to the institutions of state power and law at a fairly high level. The place and role of ethnicity in the historical past and modern social processes are studied, a new view of the key moments of the ethno-political history of the Buryat people in their inextricable connection with the general development of Russian statehood and society is substantiated. It is concluded that the Buddhist studies conducted by scientists of the IMBT SB RAS are aimed at solving urgent problems in the field of religious relations, cultural and social development, and international relations.

An AI Based Automatic Translator for Ancient Hieroglyphic Language—From Scanned Images to English Text

Recent advancements in the fields of Machine Learning and Deep Learning made a huge transformation in other fields that are not related to Computer Science. In this work, a new framework is proposed to tackle the problem of translating the old Egyptian Hieroglyphic writings to English language through deploying both Image Processing and Natural Language Processing techniques combined with AI approaches. Our primary goal is to design an application that completely revolutionizes a tourist’s experience while navigating Egyptian Historical sites. This work utilize different AI techniques to automatically convert the scanned photos of hieroglyphic language to understandable and readable English language, through two main sub-tasks: The automatic detection and recognizing of the scanned glyphs images and the translation of them into English language. Different data sources of this low-resource language were explored and augmented to train and test our models. Results of different models and algorithms are assessed and analyzed to evaluate our work. State-of-the-art results are achieved compared to literature in both automatic glyphs recognition, and glyphs-to-English translation.

The paradigm of patterns with the verb of possession in Ibero-Romance languages based on the corpus data

The article attempts to find out the paradigm of patterns with the verb of possession (tener/ tenir/têr) in Spanish, Catalan and Portuguese using the material of corpus data. It also shows, basing on the criterion of subject-object relations, the possibility of syntactic transformations with other basic verbs following two possible ways: existentiality — stativeness — locativity and activeness — possession. Depending on the semantic characteristics of the names that fill the positions of actants within the configuration of the sentence patterns with the verb of possession with real or fictitious subjects (agents) and objects (patients), four types are distinguished: 1) animate subject — animate object; 2) animate subject — inanimate object; 3) inanimate subject — animate object; 4) inanimate subject — inanimate object. The analysis of the empirical material presented in the article allows us to assert that the role of the verb of possession as the most important structural element in the expression of predicativity in the Ibero-Romance area is very significant. A separate section of the article presents data showing that the features of the functioning of the possession verbs in the Ibero-Romance languages can be explained as a result of interference with the ancient pre-Roman language of the Iberian Peninsula — Basque.

Many-Faced Carnelian: The History of the Names of the Stone in the Russian Language Tradition

This article studies the history behind the nominations of carnelian that have existed at different times within the Russian language tradition. They are loans from the ancient Greek language сардион, сардий, сардоних and сардоникии; Western European loans of Modern times карнеол, корналин; and the word сердолик which is native, but in many respects formally “induced” by the appearance of loanwords that already existed in the language. The fact of the multiplicity of nominations of this stone is due to several reasons: the antiquity of humankind’s acquaintance with this stone and the occurrence of its mentions in ancient texts that influenced the formation of the book culture of Old Rus’; the imported origin of the stone and only very late discovery of its home deposits; a specific linguistic and cultural situation that arose during the formation of the Russian scientific terminological system, when there was competition between the original names of the mineral and new Western European analogues, acquaintance with which occurred through the translation of mineralogical treatises. The article describes the factors that create the specifics of the linguistic history of carnelian, which are in different combinations characteristic of the whole area of the history of mineralogical names. The author comments on the time of the appearance of borrowed names of carnelian in the Russian language, their sources, the difference in the sphere of use, and semantic shades. Also, the article provides data on the time and reasons for the occurrence of the word сердолик, as well as its motivation based on intra-linguistic and extralinguistic factors, the existence of terminological parallelism with the participation of different names of carnelian, and competition between native and borrowed names.

Recognizing Ancient South Indian Language Using Opposition Based Grey Wolf Optimization

Recognizing signs and fonts of prehistoric language is a fairly difficult job that requires special tools. This stipulation make the dispensation period overriding, difficult and tiresome to calculate. This paper present a technique for recognizing ancient south Indian languages by applying Artificial Neural Network (ANN) associated with Opposition based Grey Wolf Optimization Algorithm (OGWA). It identifies the prehistoric language, signs and fonts. It is an apparent from the ANN system that arbitrarily produced weights or neurons linking various layers play a significant role in its performance. For adaptively determining these weights, this paper applies various optimization algorithms such as Opposition based Grey Wolf Optimization, Particle Swarm Optimization and Grey Wolf Optimization to the ANN system. Performance results are illustrated that the proposed ANN-OGWO technique achieves superior accuracy over the other techniques. In test case 1, the accuracy value of OGWO is 94.89% and in test case 2, the accuracy value of OGWO is 92.34%, on average, the accuracy of OGWO achieves 5.8% greater accuracy than ANN-GWO, 10.1% greater accuracy than ANN-PSO and 22.1% greater accuracy over conventional ANN technique.

Sociocognitive terminology-based principles for translating the classics of traditional Chinese medicine

The classics of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) contain terminology that is challenging to translate from the Ancient Chinese language into modern English and other target languages. In this paper, we introduce the main principles of sociocognitive terminology theory and examine how the application of these principles in TCM translation projects can produce superior results. To begin our study, we evaluate the salient characteristics of important TCM terms from linguistic, cognitive, diachronic, and communicative perspectives. Next, we present a model for realizing the objectives of linguistic economy, systematic relevance, conceptual retrospection, and knowledge dissemination in sociocognitive translation studies. Finally, to illustrate the practicality of this four-dimensional model, we present a case study on sociocognitive translation of the TCM classic 黄帝内经 (Huangdi Neijing or The Inner Canon of Huangdi), which was compiled during the Warring States period (475–221 BCE). In summary, we find that this model effectively addresses the complexities of TCM terminology and provides solutions to problems involving conceptual connotation, symbolic representation, and communicative context. Following this approach, translators will be better able to convey the profoundly humanistic nature of TCM concepts, significantly improve the quality of TCM translations, and promote TCM and Chinese culture internationally.

PECULIARITIES OF THE SEMANTICS OF “FRIEND” AND “ENEMY”IN ARCHAIC LYRICS: A GENERAL DESCRIPTION

The article provides a general description of the image of friend and enemy in early Greek lyrics. First of all, the author defines the specificity of the key lexemes of the ancient Greek language for the studied concepts, namely φίλος, and ἐχθρὸς, emphasizing their diversity, ambiguity, “untranslatability” and contextuality. This situation is also connected with the presence of a kind of “dictionary” of both friendship and enmity in the language of the ancient Greeks. It is proved that the source of the designation of a person as a “friend/enemy” for the early Greek lyricists was the work of the archaic epic, namely the works of Homer and Hesiod since both epics and lyricists noted that both gods and humans can be friends. At the same time, it is emphasized that the possibility of friendly relations with the transcendent was widespread in the ancient Near Eastern tradition. By examining the works of such early Greek lyricists as Alcmaeon, Anacreon, Bacchylides, Pindar, Sappho, and Theognis, it is proved that the image of a friend is dual, according to the use of one or another lexeme φίλος or ἑταῖρος. Φίλος denoted a friend with whom a person has a spiritual/emotional affinity, although this did not exclude usefulness, while ἑταῖρος determined the relationship between the mundane and everyday. This distinction between friendship and kinship was also due to the reflections of the pre-Socratics, as they contributed to this clarification by arguing that there are conditions for friendship that do not necessarily exist between family and friends. It has been proved that enemies in the context of the works of the lyricists of the pre-classical period of ancient culture exist not only in the relations between people but also between certain mythological characters. The Greek poets of the pre-classical period did not hate the enemy as such only for some atrocities, but it was a mutual feeling. One was not at odds with a person blindly, thoughtlessly, but because of the corresponding (in)action with which this or that person was associated. The image of the enemy has not only a negative meaning, since negative, sometimes even cruel feelings will be felt towards him, but also positive and friendly ones, if he really deserves it.

The Objects and Causes of <I>Kawaii</I> Emotions

This study discusses the results of a literature survey and cross-tabulation analysis of the objects of kawaii emotions and causes of kawaii emotions. From ancient language dictionaries, historically, kawaii could be said to be mainly used to refer to one’s relatives and gradually to non-relative children, romantic partners, and artificial objects. Based on the descriptions from various ancient language dictionaries, this study presents four causes of kawaii emotions: the morphology of the object, its behaviors and facial expressions, relationship between human and it, and its perceived personality. The primary causes of kawaii emotions toward relatives and romantic partners are the relationship with the object and its personality, and the causes toward non-relative children are the morphology of the object, its behavior and facial expressions, and its personality, and the causes toward artificial objects are the morphology of the object, its behavior and facial expressions, and the relationship.