Achaemenid Research Articles

Regional Lydian pottery at Daskyleion: testing stylistic classification by chemical analysis

AbstractThis paper presents the results of an interdisciplinary study of Lydian pottery excavated at Daskyleion between 1988 and 2002. Before becoming the satrapal centre of Hellespontine Phrygia in the Achaemenid period, to judge by the historical and archaeological evidence, Daskyleion had close interrelations with the Lydian kingdom. Previous stylistic and macroscopic fabric studies of Lydian pottery from Daskyleion have shown that as well as items produced in the Lydian capital of Sardis, ceramics may also have been imported from other production centres in the region of Greater Lydia (Gürtekin-Demir 2002). New chemical analysis by neutron activation (NAA) of 31 samples from Daskyleion presented here confirms this suggestion. We determined four chemical provenance groups of Lydian pottery, each of them defined by an element pattern which is distinct from the pottery made in Sardis. Although these four provenance groups cannot be located at present due to the lack of reference data from potential Lydian-style ceramic production centres in Anatolia, they prove that other production centres existed outside Sardis. Daskyleion may have been one of those.

Architectonics of Spiritual Foundations in Azerbaijanian Culture

As a result of the study of the genesis of Azerbaijani culture, the author identifies three cultural substrates, namely, ancient Iranian, Turkic and Arabic, also, proposing a model of the genesis of Azerbaijani culture, characterized by the change of three cultural and genetic layers. Each of them is characterized by the manifestation of special value-semantic dominants associated with Zoroastrianism, Tengrism and Islam, respectively. As they overlap, all layers remain to some extend – they interact and complement each other, eventually creating a common framework of Azerbaijani culture with its authentic features.

Was Pigres an Interpreter to Cyrus?

Ancient authors did not leave us any description of ancient interpreters, and neither their usual functions nor possible social positions are known to us. Although this can be partially restored from written sources, the whole picture remains in the shadows. We are not aware of the ways in which people became interpreters in Antiquity, whether such a profession actually existed, and to what extent it is possible to apply the modern understanding of interpreters to ancient times. Finally, there are many dark corners in our understanding of historical specifics: the functions, social status and ethnic origin of interpreters obviously varied in different cultures and time frames. The use of a word or an expression defining the interpreter is another issue, for Greek ἑρμηνεύς, a traditional lexeme in dictionaries of Ancient Greek (LSJ, GE, DELG, GEW, EDG, Woodhouse), does not, in fact, always denote someone related to this line of work. In Xenophon’s Anabasis a person named Pigres is described as ἑρμηνεύς and one of the companions of Cyrus the Younger in his belligerent attempt to overthrow Artaxerxes II. Pigres is usually understood as an interpreter (Gehman, Lendle, Rochette, Wiotte-Franz, Stoneman etc.), but is there a solid basis for such understanding? What do we know about him? What does Xenophon tell us about his responsibilities? The study shows that Pigres’ identity should be understood in relation to the usage of the word ἑρμηνεύς in V–ΙV BCE and to the sociocultural context of Asia Minor under the rule of the Achaemenid dynasty.

Distribution of Achaemenid Period Settlements on the Southwest Iran-Khuzestan Ramhormoz Plain with Survey Data

The Ramhormoz region in south and southwest Iran and its large-scale geography extends to the northern highlands of present-day modern Khuzestan. Despite its significance for its connection with the Susa-Persopolis Road during the Achaemenid period, the region did not attract archaeological attention until 1948s. Even in its brevity, the results of the 1969 Wright-Carter survey showed that the Ramhormoz region is promising in shedding light on the relation between the highlands and lowlands of southwest Iran. As a result of new archaeological data and the survey conducted under my supervision, the characteristics of the Achaemenid settlements on the Ramhormoz plain in Southwest Iran were reanalyzed. The influence of geographical factors such as the presence of large rivers and fertile lands on the formation and prosperity of the settlements, and the relations between sedentary, rural, and nomadic communities were examined. It was thus revealed that proximity to commercial roads and access to water resources and pasture were the main determinants in the distribution model of Achaemenid settlements. Rich pastures for nomads, the potential for irrigated agriculture for settlers, and access to communication routes provided advantages for both lifestyles (Alizadeh, 1979). The socio-political control and settlement pattern organized by the central political power in the Late Elamite Period continued in the Achaemenid period as well. Therefore, the settlement pattern is more associated with roads. When the location of the settlements and their distance to each other are examined, it is seen that the frequency of settlements on the Susa-Persepolis Royal Road is very high. Settlements are located on the road within short distances of each other, which shows that the road is a determining factor on settlements in the region due to its socio-economic advantages. During the Achaemenid period, as in the previous period, while settlements continued their development on the slopes of the mountains and on the edge of the plain, they were mainly concentrated in the center of the plain. During this period, the size of the settlements increased, which is indicative of population growth on the Ramhormoz plain during the Achaemenid period.

The Divine Choice: The Source of Power in Ancient Iran (Persians, Parthians, Sasanians) in the Light of Written and Iconographic Evidence

İktidarın kaynağına dair ideolojiler devletlerin meşruiyetinin dayandığı temel unsurlardan biridir. Devletlerin hâkimiyet anlayışını yansıtan bu ideolojilerden biri hükümdarın ve onun üyesi olduğu hanedanlığın kutsiyeti düşüncesine dayanan ilahi destektir. Eski İran tarihinde egemenliğin ve iktidarın kaynağı dini temeller çerçevesinde gelişen bir yapı arz etmektedir. Bunun esasını hükümdarın tanrı ile olan iyi (doğruluk, adalet, düzen) veya kötü (yalan, kargaşa) münasebeti oluşturmaktadır. Bu ilişki çerçevesinde hükümdarın tanrı ile ilişkisi “iyi” üzerineyse tanrının ona hükümdarlık yetkisi bağışladığına inanılırdı. Ancak hükümdar kötü bir yönetim sergilerse yönetme erki yine tanrı tarafından geri alınırdı. Tanrı ve hükümdar arasındaki bu ilişki Eski İran’ın yazılı ve arkeolojik kaynaklarında ifade edilmiştir. Bu hususta Avesta metinlerinden Yasna ve Yaşt bölümleri ile Pers ve Sâsânî dönemi yazıtları hükümdarlık geleneği çerçevesinde tanrısal seçim/yetki anlayışını yansıtmaktadır. İkonografik kaynaklarda da bu durum birtakım kutsal anlamlar yüklenen sembollerle ifade edilmiştir. Bu çalışmanın amacı da Eski İran’daki Pers, Parth, Sâsânî hanedanlıkları döneminde tanrısal seçim ideolojisinin yazılı ve ikonografik kaynaklardaki yansımalarını incelemek ve bu ideolojinin söz konusu hanedanlıklardaki tarihi seyrini takip etmektir. Bu hususta Eski İran’da söz konusu hanedanlıklar döneminde hükümdarın tanrı tarafından seçilmiş bir temsilci olduğu, buna rağmen iktidarı elde etmenin de bazı şartlarının bulunduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Bu şartın temeli ise tanrının lütfunu kazanmaktır. Bu amaç için dindar bir kral imajı yaratılmıştır. Bunun yanında tanrısal seçim ideolojisinin bir sonucu olarak Pers ve Sâsânî dönemine ait kaynaklarda dünya hâkimiyeti fikri ortaya çıkmıştır. Bütün bu ideoloji yazılı ve görsel araçlarla bir mesaj olarak sunulmuş ve dolayısıyla meşruiyet propagandasının da bir aracı haline gelmiştir.

Yau̯nā and Sakā: Identity Constructions at the Margins of the Achaemenid Empire

The Achaemenid Empire can be reasonably considered an “empire of peoples” from both an ideological and structural perspective. It included all the lands of the peoples of the world and all people helped to maintain imperial order and prosperity. In reality, the empire had boundaries and there were peoples who lived near and beyond them. Under King Darius I, groups of people were annexed at the northeastern and northwestern margins of the imperial territory, thus entering the imperial space and consequently also the Achaemenid documents. The border peoples of the Yau̯nā and Sakā were the only peoples of the empire to be differentiated through epithets, which were added to their collective names in the texts. This shows a unique process of group identity constructions by the authorities on the edges of the imperial space. The analysis of the system of epithets used to indicate the Yau̯nā and Sakā conducted in this paper allows us to draw some conclusions on the mechanisms and reasons behind these specific forms of identity constructions at the margins. Moreover, it shows how this process reflected the main directions of imperial expansion under the first Achaemenids.

A comparative study of painting and architecture stylistics of contemporary Iranian and western arts

Iranian art reflects the spirit and inclinations of Iranians, regardless of place and time of origin. Another point is the diversity of works of art which shows that the ancient Iranians had high skills in different regions. Iranian architecture and painting have always been present side by side and influentially throughout history, and this connection persists until today in contemporary Iranian art. The present article is a research on the features and concepts of architectural and painting styles in contemporary Iranian art and a comparative comparison of these two arts which is centered on the concept of architecture and painting. The contemporary architectural styles and tendencies in question date back to the first and subsequent Pahlavi rule. The general objectives of the research are to apply the styles of painting and architecture in Iranian art to achieve the same conceptualism of these two arts. For this purpose, three main categories have been studied: the first part is contemporary Iranian architecture, the second part is contemporary Iranian painting and the third part is a comparative comparison of contemporary Iranian architectural and painting styles. The present research is an analytical and comparative research and the research method is based on the application of styles and logical reasoning. Documentary and library studies and theories of experts are also the basis of this article.

Utopian Imagination in Ancient Iran: The Nostalgia of a Lost Paradise

Abstract Various manifestations of utopia, aspiring or conservative, idyllic or oppressive, credible or far-fetched, have long been elaborated in classics of literature, philosophy, and political theory. Nevertheless, utopian imagination has a tendency to transcend the boundaries of classic texts and debates. Presenting an account of an oriental utopia lost in history, this article revisits utopian imagination in ancient Iran. In particular, it discusses the construction of the utopian city of Varjamkard under Jamshid, one of the most popular Shahs or kings in Persian mythology. A paradise hidden from the world’s eyes, Varjamkard was built to protect people from the dire winter that was the manifestation of evil on earth; but then this earthly paradise was lost because of Jamshid’s disregard for a divine law. This paper aims to unearth an ancient utopian tradition, taking the concept of utopia to the less explored realms in history and times.

The bow as an insignia of power in the art of ancient Iran

This article presents the iconographic concept of the bow as an insignia in ancient Iran of the imperial era. The primary source of the bow’s association with the depiction of royal power is Mesopotamian iconography, where the bow is shown in the hands of kings without any connection to the act of shooting itself. The model of depicting a ruler with a bow resting on his foot, developed in the Neo-Assyrian period, was entirely adopted by imperial Achaemenid iconography. Another aspect expressing the association of the bow with royal power is the habit of depicting, in the Mesopotamian tradition, shooting kings without quivers. Iranian art of the Parthian and Sasanid periods, on the other hand, adopted the quiver as a sign of status from the nomadic steppe tradition, but one can nevertheless see in Sasanid iconography relics of the functioning of the bow as an insignia in the Mesopotamian sense.

Herbal treatments for asthma, according to Avicenna

Abstract Background and objectives: Conventional therapies using herbal medicine to treat asthma are employed by practitioners in Iran. The use of herbal medicine for asthma is rooted in traditional knowledge. Scientific evaluation of these historical documents could be valuable to find new potential applications in conventional medicine. Traditional Persian Medicine (TPM), which is widely known with the manuscripts of Avicenna and Rhazes, is one of the most ancient medical set of beliefs. Methods: In this study, firstly we introduce a series of medicinal plants that would be enormously valuable for treating asthma on the basis of Avicenna (The Canon of Medicine by Avicenna). After that, we review medicinal plants properties found in the pharmacological studies from electronic databases and then discuss their mechanism of action in asthma. For a detailed review, relevant abstracts and articles related to the above-mentioned areas were selected, including review articles on the subjects, along with clinical trial studies in animals and humans. Results: The physicians of ancient Iran such as Avicenna treated asthma patients with a variety of medicinal herbs. Some of these herbs are currently used, while others have the potential to be used in the future of asthma management. Conclusions: This study demonstrates that the investigated plants are consistent with new studies; therefore, different components of these herbs can be utilized in manufacturing new drugs. Future clinical studies on healthy volunteers and also patients suffering from asthma and reactive airway disease are compulsory to confirm the effectuality of these plants as complementary interventions in asthma.

THE ESSENCE OF HUMAN IN BEDIL’S CREATION

Mirza Abdulkadir Bedil is a Persian-speaking poet, prose writer, philosopher and Indian thinker, very popular among the peoples of Central Asia and Afghanistan. In his work, Bedil analyzes the main part of the works of art and literature of Persian and Tajik poets from Rudaki to Jami and the literary and philosophical ideas of Sanayi, Attar, Jalaliddin Rumi and Ibn al-Arabi. The ancient philosophy of ancient Iran, Greece, India and Arabia laid the foundation for the development of literary and philosophical ideas, and as a result of relying on the achievements of the past, Mirza Bedil strengthened his philosophical thought.

THE SILK ROAD AS A COMMON PART OF THE HISTORY OF IRAN AND KAZAK

Each country has its own history in which the events and ups and downs of that country are recorded. But countries also have parts of history that they have in common. An international incident or a transnational incident in the past caused countries to have common ground in parts of the history. The Silk Road and trade at that time are common points of history between Iran and Kazakhstan. The Silk Road, which started in the east of China, went west, and divided into two major international routes, one passing through Iran and the other passing through Kazakhstan. The Silk Road in Iran and Kazakhstan had structures that facilitate the passage of caravans, including caravanserais. Iranian cities had an acceptable performance in this particular case. One of the most important tools needed to create an efficient administrative structure and oversee the country's affairs has been to build communication channels. The royal road is an example of this communication route that was created in the Achaemenid period to connect different parts of the country.

A Critical Review on the Book “Political Thought in Ancient Iran”

Researchers consider political thought as a reflection of political phenomena, which, of course, has come into being in a civilized and political society with a government structure. Each political society, based on the distinct structure that exists in the understanding and culture of its inhabitants, is distinct from other societies and has a particular attitude and mindset. Therefore, understanding the nature of the historical society and people’s behaviors and practices, as well as the causes of certain events, is possible only by studying the thought and political culture of those societies. Thus, the research can clarify the dark angles of a historical period and contribute to the richness of the audience's historical understanding. Also, the impartial and scientific critique of these works contributes to the scientific and educational richness and adds to their efficiency, usefulness, and privileges. Accordingly, in this article, one of the newly published works on “Political Thought in Ancient Iran” was covered to study the importance and credibility and, of course, some of its shortcomings and defects in the form and content. There is a hope of better presentation in the subsequent printing.

A Critique on the Book “Nation, State and Rule of Law”

Javad Tabatabai’s intellectual project has been based on two main axes of the decline of political thought in Iran for the past three decades and in recent decades around the axis of Iranshahri thought. Tabatabai is one of the few writers who has used concepts to explain the history of political thought in Iran within a regular intellectual system, but the scope of his project has caused that not all the themes of Iranshahri political thought have been clearly outlined and studied. This article is an attempt to give a brief description of Tabatabai’s latest work and its important issues such as the position of the First Constitutional Assembly, the concept of tradition, the need to distinguish between nationalism and the Iranian idea, and a reflection on his views, especially on the relationship between his views and issues, contemporary Iran and its criticisms of contemporary intellectuals. The authors argue that although the legacy of ancient Iran is important and significant, without the reconstruction of the classical ideas that are called Iranshahri thought due to Tabatabai's own efforts nowadays, these ideas will remain in a state of ambiguity.

QIZQAPAN: A ROCK-CUT TOMB FROM THE MEDIAN, ACHAEMENID, SELEUCID OR PARTHIAN PERIOD?

More than eight decades have passed since Edmonds's introduction to the rock-cut Tomb of Qizqapan, yet there are still ambiguities and questions regarding a number of aspects, specifically its dating. Different dates from the Median, Achaemenid, Seleucid, and Parthian periods have been proposed for this monument. However, out of all the proposed eras, none has been fully accepted by the majority of archaeologists, and disagreements regarding the date still continue. This article reviews and analyses previous proposals and discusses and evaluates other elements which affect the dating of this monument. The results show that by taking into account several factors, the most probable date for this tomb is the fourth century B.C., contemporaneous with the late Achaemenid and the early Seleucid period. The conclusion is that Qizqapan does have a Median identity but not a Median period date.

Термин «аристократия» и его применение для обозначения знати в Ахеменидской империи

В статье рассматривается правомерность использования термина «аристократия» применительно к истории Древнего Востока в целом и Ахеменидской державы, в частности. Авторы статьи на ряде примеров демонстрируют, в каких контекстах встречался термин «аристократия» в трудах зарубежных и отечественных востоковедов и эллинистов, а в завершении дают краткую характеристику персидской аристократии, которая приводится ими с учетом как древнегреческого понимания этого феномена, и так и древнеперсидских реалий, на основании источников.This article discusses the use of the term “aristocracy” for the history of the Ancient East as a whole, and of the Achaemenid Empire, in particular. Turning to this issue, the authors demonstrate, in a number of examples, in what contexts the term “aristocracy” was used in the works of foreign and Russian orientalists and Hellenists, and finally they give a brief description of the Persian aristocracy, which they consider on the basis of the ancient Greek understanding of this phenomenon, and of ancient Persian realities reconstructed from sources.

Persian Residences in the Southern Caucasus: Latest Discoveries in the Periphery of the Achaemenid Empire

– New outstanding Achaemenid monumental complex in the periphery of the Persian Empire. – Magnetometer and ERT prospecting of adobe mud-brick architecture. – Test excavation, soil magnetic studies on top soils, mudbricks and excavation profiles.

The So-called Achaemenid Capitals and the Problem of Royal Court Residence

ABSTRACT The landscape in which the so-called Achaemenid capitals – specifically Pasargadae, Susa and Persepolis – are located, may be reflections of the political structure of the Achaemenid Empire. Following an ancient Near Eastern pattern known as “political nomadism”, the Achaemenid king was never settled in a single place and moved constantly throughout his empire. This practice, vital to reinforce the bond between the king and his subjects and maintain his land, prevented the permanent presence of the “royal court” in one location; hence the court must have been physically set up in a “tent”, so majestic and glorious that was in fact a “mobile palace”. A large number of courtiers and the scenery of numerous tents looked like a “mobile city”. The present paper attempts to archaeologically evaluate the capacity of monumental buildings in Pasargadae, Susa, Persepolis, Ecbatana and Babylon as the royal court’s residences. It seems these monuments were primarily manifestations of kingly power and glory and the king only temporarily resided in them to attend certain banquets and ceremonies. Continuity of this condition in later periods, for which more literary evidence is available, provides a better ground for understanding the Achaemenid royal court and its relation to monumental buildings of the aforementioned sites.

Environmental phenomenon in the political thought of ancient Iran

دیدگاه انسان تأثیر مستقیم بر محیط‌زیست دارد. در دوره مدرن انسان خود را جای خداوند قرار داد و طبیعت را به سلطه کشیده است. نتیجه سلطه بر طبیعت، تجاوز به حریم‌های آن و بر‌هم‌زدن چرخه طبیعت بوده است. در عهد باستان انسان همیشه خود را در داخل هستی تعریف می‌کرد و اعتقاد داشت که نمی‌توان و نباید چرخه طبیعت را برهم ‌ریخت. نحوه تعامل انسان با طبیعت و محیط‌زیست در دوره‌های گوناگون بسیار متغیر و گاه متناقض بوده است. وجود دیدگاه زیست‌محور و پذیرش این اصل که انسان جزئی از طبیعت است و حیات او به حیات محیط پیرامونش بستگی دارد، باعث بروز رفتارهای مبتنی بر احترام به طبیعت و محیط‌زیست شده است. ایرانیان باستان نیز به‌عنوان یکی از اولین تمدن‌های شکل‌گرفته در جهان همواره در مسائل انسانی و زیست‌محیطی پیشرو بوده‌اند. قوانین حاکم در دوران کهن مبتنی بر الگوهای اعتقادی بوده است و سیاست‌های حکمرانی آن دوران با تأسی از پندارهای حفاظت از عناصر محیطی آب‌وخاک، گیاه و حیوان شکل گرفته است. در این مقاله علاوه بر بررسی دیدگاه زیست‌محور در اسطوره‌های به‌جا مانده از ایران باستان و همچنین کاوش در منابع آئین زرتشت و کتاب اوستا، به چگونگی ارتباط سیاست‌های شاهان و حکمرانی با اندیشه‌های زیست‌محیطی پرداخته شده است. نتیجه نشان می‍دهد که ایرانیان باستان با نگرشی زیست‌محور و با استفاده از گزاره‌های مذهبی سعی بر تقدس عناصر چهارگانه و تأکید بر حفظ آن داشته باشند.

The Arabs and the Achaemenid Invasion of Egypt ( 529-521 B.C ).

The Achaemenid Empire ( 559-330 B.C) Is one of the largest empires in the long of the history. The area which controlled by this empire extended to about 5.5 million square kilometers , Among of many of military campaigns of this empire it was the campaign to control Egypt, which done by Cambyses II (525B.C) And that which followed to invade Egypt after that, that was accomplished on a date (525 BC .), Where Cambyses II succeeded in what Cyrus (the great) failed One of the most discussed topics in this campaign it was about how the Cambyses army penetrated the desert extending beyond the city of Babylon in the west to Memphis in Egypt and controlled it, through the help of some Arab tribes or kingdoms in the upper or northern Arabian Peninsula. They are the ones who helped in the success of the Cambyses campaign in Egypt by providing financial support from camels and their knowledge of the road routes there.. The current study confirmed that the Qaidarians were the ones who contributed to the success of the Cambyses campaign in penetrating the desert and reaching Egypt through the Sinai Peninsula. The current study suggested two desert paths from Babylon to Egypt, the name of the Arabian king (Qaidarian) which provided assistance to this campaign was Eyas bin Muchli , and the reason for the Qaidarians whose helped is attributed to Qambiz II was for the purpose of maintaining control over trade routes and strengthening their control of trade between the various regions and kingdoms in the region..