Amplitude Of Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials Research Articles

The positive allosteric modulator of NMDA receptors, GNE-9278, blocks the ethanol-induced decrease of excitability in developing retrosplenial cortex neurons from mice.

Binge-like exposure to ethanol during the brain growth spurt triggers apoptotic neurodegeneration in multiple brain regions, including the retrosplenial cortex, a brain region that is part of the hippocampal-diencephalic-cingulate memory network. This is mediated, in part, by reduced Ca2+ influx through N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors followed by a decrease in the activation of pro-survival genes. Here, we tested whether a positive allosteric modulator of NMDA receptors could counteract the inhibitory effect of ethanol on developing retrosplenial cortex pyramidal neurons. We used patch-clamp electrophysiological techniques in acute slices from postnatal day 6-8mice to test the effect of the positive allosteric modulator GNE-9278 on ethanol-induced inhibition of NMDA receptor function. GNE-9278 dose-dependently increased the amplitude, decay time, and total charge of NMDA excitatory postsynaptic currents. At a concentration of 5μmol L-1 , GNE-9278 significantly reduced the 90 mmol L-1 ethanol-induced inhibition of NMDA excitatory postsynaptic current amplitude, decay time, and total charge. Current-clamp experiments showed that 5μmol L-1 GNE-9278 ameliorated the 90 mmol L-1 ethanol-induced inhibition of synaptically-evoked action potential firing and compound excitatory postsynaptic potential amplitude. These findings indicate that positive allosteric modulators mitigate ethanol-induced hypofunction of NMDA receptors in developing cerebral cortex neurons, an effect that could ameliorate its pro-apoptotic effects during the late stages of fetal development.

Hippocampal mossy cells exhibit some of the earliest signs of increased excitability in the Tg2576 model of Alzheimer’s disease neuropathology

AbstractBackgroundAlzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative illness characterized by progressive accumulation of amyloid beta (Aβ) and neurofibrillary tangles, with cognitive impairment and altered neural activity. Hyperexcitability in the early stages of AD contribute to Aβ accumulation and cognitive impairment, aggravating the progression of AD. However, the hyperexcitability origin is not clear. This study aimed to test whether mossy cells (MCs), an excitatory cell of the hippocampal dentate gyrus, show increased excitability at early stages of AD and contribute to the increased network excitability generation. Indeed, alterations of MCs contribute to hyperexcitability and cognitive impairment in epilepsy. However, the role of MCs in AD has not been substantially explored.MethodsIntrinsic and synaptic properties of MCs and granule cells (GCs) from WT and Tg2576 mice at early ages (1‐2 m.o.) were characterized by whole‐cell patch‐clamp recordings. Synaptic properties included the frequency and amplitude of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) and excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs and IPSCs). Deterioration in MCs morphology was evaluated using Nissl staining and GluR2/3 labeling by light‐ and confocal microscopy. Aβ deposition was evaluated using the McSA1 antibody.ResultsTg2576 GCs did not have any significant difference in their intrinsic properties, as we shown previously in mice ∼3 m.o. However, an enhanced excitatory and inhibitory input to GCs, depicted by augmented IPSC (7.16 vs 14.04 events/s) and NMDA‐mediated EPSC frequencies (0.81 vs 1.41 events/s) were found. Interestingly, Tg2576 MCs had an augmented EPSP frequency (5.75 vs 9.44 events/s), and their intrinsic properties showed a depolarized RMP (‐72.88 vs ‐58.36 mV), and reduced rheobase (145.56 vs 47.14 pA), AP amplitude (98.14 vs 76.66 mV), time‐to‐peak (552.75 vs 266.16 ms) and maximum rise (171.44 vs 88.68 mV/ms) and decay slopes (‐61.17 vs ‐42.38 mV/ms). The correlation between #APs and current injected showed Tg2576 MCs fired significantly more APs (SEZD = 0.34; z = 2.48). Tg2576 MCs showed robust intracellular Aβ aggregation without any significant morphological change.ConclusionsMCs changes in excitability and early accumulation of Aβ suggest that MCs could be the cause of increased excitability occurring later in GCs. In this manner, MCs could be an important contributor to AD.

Impairment in social interaction and hippocampal long-term potentiation at perforant pathway-dentate gyrus synapses in a prenatal valproic acid-induced rat model of autism.

It is well established that prenatal valproic acid exposure in rats leads to autism-like behaviours and social deficits. Long-term potentiation changes in the brain have been proposed as a potential mechanism in the development of autistic behaviour. However, there are controversies regarding the effect of in utero valproic acid exposure on long-term potentiation. This study examined the social interaction and long-term potentiation induction in perforant pathway-dentate gyrus synapses in male offspring of a rat model of autism induced by prenatal exposure to valproic acid. On Embryonic Day 12.5, the pregnant dams received an injection of 500 mg/kg valproic acid (intraperitoneal) to produce the autism model. The sociability test was performed between Postnatal Days 37 and 40. The offsprings were urethane-anaesthetized and placed into a stereotaxic apparatus for surgery, electrode implantation and field potential recording on Postnatal Days 45–55. In the dentate gyrus region, excitatory postsynaptic potential slope and population spike amplitude were measured. Valproic acid-exposed offspring showed significantly impaired social interaction. The birth weight in valproic acid-exposed rats was significantly lower than in control rats. The ability of dentate gyrus synapses to induce long-term potentiation was hampered by valproic acid exposure. The decreasing excitatory postsynaptic potential slope and population spike amplitude of long-term potentiation provide evidence in favour of this notion. It is widely supposed that the hippocampus plays a central role in the process of learning and memory as well as social interaction and social memory. Therefore, deficiencies in hippocampal synaptic plasticity may be responsible, at least in part, for the social interaction deficits in valproic acid-exposed rats.

The Role of Acetylcholine on the Effects of Different Doses of Sulfite in Learning and Memory.

In this study, the effects of different doses of sulfite on learning, memory, and long term potentiation as well as the relationship of these effects with acetylcholine pathways, Arc and synapsin 1 levels were investigated. Sixty male Wistar albino rats were randomly divided into three groups as control, S100, and S260. Sodiummetabisulfite (S100;100mg/kg/day, S260;260mg/kg/day) was given by oral administration. Behavioral changes were evaluated. After long term potentiation recordings from the perforant pathway-dentate gyrus synapses, animals were sacrificed. Acetylcholinesterase activity, choline acetyltransferase activity, acetylcholine level as well as Arc and Synapsin 1 expressions were analyzed on the hippocampi. The total distance and average velocity values in the open field and Morris water maze tests increased in the sulfite groups, while the discrimination index in the novel object recognition test decreased compared to controls. Acetylcholine levels and choline acetyltransferase activity were also increased in the sulfite groups, while acetylcholinesterase activity was decreased compared to controls. Sulfite intake attenuated long term potentiation in the hippocampus. It has been observed that the excitatory postsynaptic potential slope and population spike amplitude of the field potentials obtained in sulfite groups decreased. This impairment was accompanied by a decrease in Arc and synapsin 1 expressions. In conclusion, it has been shown that sulfite intake in adults impairs learning and memory, possibly mediated by the cholinergic pathway. It is considered that the decrement in Arc and synapsin expressions may play a role in the mechanism underlying the impairment in long term potentiation caused by toxicity.

Differential Effects of Invasive Anodal Trans-spinal Direct Current Stimulation on Monosynaptic Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials, Ia Afferents Excitability, and Motoneuron Intrinsic Properties Between Superoxide Dismutase Type-1 Glycine to Alanine Substitution at Position 93 and Wildtype Mice

In presymptomatic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), spinal motoneurons (MNs) have reduced firing patterns and synaptic excitation levels. Preliminary data indicated that in the SOD1 G93A mouse model of ALS, monosynaptic excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) evoked in spinal MN by Ia proprioceptive afferent stimulation could be facilitated by trans-spinal direct current stimulation (tsDCS). However, which element of the Ia afferent-MN circuit is affected by tsDCS, and whether tsDCS-induced EPSP facilitation is a general phenomenon or specific to the superoxide dismutase type-1 (SOD1) Glycine to Alanine substitution at position 93 (G93A) mutation, remain to be determined. In this study, we have applied 15-minute tsDCS to the lumbar segments of presymptomatic SOD1 and wildtype (WT) mice and explored its impact on MN passive membrane properties, EPSP amplitude, and Ia afferent activity. While anodal tsDCS induced short-lasting EPSP facilitation in both SOD1 and WT mice, Ia afferent activity and passive membrane properties were altered only in SOD1 mice. Interestingly, EPSP amplitudes of SOD1 mice remained facilitated for at least 1 h after current application, but no long-lasting effect was observed in WT mice. Moreover, anodal tsDCS failed to induce any long-lasting changes in MN passive membrane properties in both SOD1 and WT mice. Conversely, cathodal tsDCS decreased Ia afferent induced EPSP amplitudes only during current application in SOD1 MNs, and no significant effects on Ia afferents excitability were observed. Our findings indicate the high susceptibility of SOD1 MNs to tsDCS and highlight the potential of this neuromodulation technique for the treatment of ALS.

The impact of different dark chocolate dietary patterns on synaptic potency and plasticity in the hippocampal CA1 area of the rats under chronic isolation stress

ABSTRACT Introduction Although, stress causes brain dysfunction, consumption of dark chocolate (DC) has positive effects on brain functions. The current study investigated the impact of different DC dietary patterns on synaptic potency and plasticity in the hippocampal CA1 area, as well as food intake and body weight in rats under chronic isolation stress. Methods Thirty-five rats were allocated into five groups of control, stress, and stress accompanied by three DC dietary patterns (stress-compulsory, -optional, and -restricted DC). The stressed rats on a compulsory diet only received DC and the ones on an optional diet received unlimited chow and/or DC. Also, the stressed rats on a restricted diet each received chow freely and only 4 g DC daily. Subsequently, the slope and amplitude of field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs) were assessed based on the Input-Output (I/O) curves and after the longterm potentiation (LTP). Moreover, food intake and body weight were measured for all groups. Results The fEPSP slope and amplitude in the I/O curves and after LTP decreased significantly in the stress group compared to the control group. Although the slope and amplitude both enhanced non-significantly in the optional DC diet, these parameters changed significantly in both compulsory and restricted DC dietary patterns compared to the stress group. Also, food intake and body weight decreased significantly in all DC groups. Conclusion The compulsory and restricted DC dietary patterns reversed the harmful effects of chronic isolation stress on the hippocampal synaptic potency, plasticity, learning, and memory. All DC diets, especially compulsory and restricted ones, reduced food intake and body weight.

The Effect of Sub-chronic Administration of Brewed Coffee on Long-term Potentiation in a Rat Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Background: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative illness that causes memory loss and cognitive impairment. For neurodegenerative illnesses, the therapeutic properties and healthy advantages of brewed coffee (BC) intake have been widely explored. Objectives: This research aimed to look into the findings of sub-chronic BC administration on long-term potentiation (LTP) as a model of synaptic plasticity that supports memory function in the hippocampus in rat models of AD. Methods: In this study, 32 male Wistar rats were utilized as test subjects. The animals were randomly divided into four groups with eight rats in each group as follows: (1) Sham (animals that received normal saline (NS)), (2) streptozotocin (STZ), (3) BC, and (4) BC-STZ. Animals were treated for three weeks. Results: The amplitude of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) in the BC + STZ (164.23 ± 11.33%; n = 8) group significantly increased compared to the STZ group at 0.25 h after HFS (P = 0.0330). Also, it significantly increased in the BC + STZ group at 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, and 2 h (P = 0.4481, P = 0.4609, P = 0.1239, P = 0.0017, P = 0.0413, P = 0.0851, P = 0.1323) after HFS. Moreover, the slope of EPSPs in the BC-STZ group showed an overall improvement compared to the STZ group at 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, and 2 h (P = 0.1511, P = 0.0004, P = 0.0394, P = 0.0038, P = 0.0002, P = 0.0059, P = 0.0245, and P = 0.4126, respectively) after HFS during LTP recording time. Conclusions: In conclusion, the present study found that BC consumption improved synaptic plasticity and memory in rat models of AD induced by STZ. However, more studies are needed to elucidate BC's neuroprotective mechanisms.

Long-Tailed Characteristics of Neural Activity Induced by Structural Network Properties

Over the past few decades, neuroscience studies have elucidated the structural/anatomical network characteristics in the brain and their associations with functional networks and the dynamics of neural activity. These studies have been carried out at multiple spatial-temporal scale levels, including spikes at the neural microcircuit level, neural activity at the intra-brain regional level, and neural interactions at the whole-brain network level. One of the structural and functional neural characteristics widely observed among large spatial-temporal scale ranges is long-tail distribution, typified as power-low distribution, gamma distribution, and log-normal distribution. In particular, long-tailed distributions found in excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) induce various types of neural dynamics and functions. We reviewed recent studies on neural dynamics produced by the structural long-tailed characteristics of brain neural networks. In particular, the spiking neural network with a log-normal EPSP distribution was first introduced for the essential factors to produce spontaneous activity and was extended and utilized for studies on the association of neural dynamics with the network topology depending on EPSP amplitude. Furthermore, the characteristics of the response to a steady stimulus and its dependence on E/I balance, which are widely observed under pathological conditions, were described by the spiking neural networks with EPSP long-tailed distribution. Moreover, this spiking neural network has been utilized in modeling studies of mutual interactions among local microcircuit circuits. In future studies, the implementation of more global brain network architectures in modeling studies might reveal the mechanisms by which brain dynamics and brain functions emerge from the whole brain network architecture.

Intermittent Cocaine Self‐Administration Infusions Increases Subthreshold Activity in Putative Dopaminergic Neurons of The Ventral Tegmental Area

Intermittent Access (IntA) cocaine self‐administration is a protocol suggested to better simulate human addictive behavior due to the intermittent pattern of drug administration. IntA is also known to produce incentive salience and psychomotor sensitization. It is documented that IntA produces a neurochemical sensitization of the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) system by increasing both release and uptake of DA. The ventral tegmental area (VTA) DA neurons display a prominent mixed cation current conductance known as the hyperpolarization‐activated cyclic nucleotide current, or Ih. Neural processes such as resting membrane potential, firing frequency modulation, and synaptic integration are influenced by the Ih. Previous results from our laboratory demonstrated that Ih amplitude and membrane capacitance of putative VTA DA neurons are significantly reduced after cocaine sensitization. This Ihand capacitance reduction resulted in an increased temporal summation, mean depolarization and excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) amplitude, all related to an enhanced neuronal excitability state. It is not known how IntA alters the intrinsic properties of VTA DA cells. Since the cocaine sensitization model involves experimenter administered drug injections (non‐contingent) it is important to determine if electrophysiological changes in VTA DA cells are present when drugs are self‐administered (contingent). In the present study we explored if synaptic integration, membrane capacitance and cell activity alterations are present after exposure to cocaine IntA. Our hypothesis is that IntA enhances synaptic integration and neuronal excitability of VTA DA cells. Whole‐cell patch‐clamp technique in rat brain slices was used to inject a 33‐Hz train of 5 αEPSCs (α = 5 ms; Imax = 50) into the soma of putative VTA DA neurons when clamped at ‐70 mV and analyze the effects of cocaine IntA, and passive cocaine infusions (yoked controls) on synaptic integration. Increasing depolarizing current injections were used to evaluate how neurons respond to a depolarizing stimulus. Our results demonstrate that an IntA protocol, but not passive cocaine infusions, produces a significant increase in the number of APs (P<0.05). Temporal summation was increased at depolarized potentials in the IntA group and Yoked controls (P<0.0001). These results suggests that neuronal activity regulation is dependent on associative learning to drug cues. The findings also suggest that enhanced synaptic integration could possibly be a cocaine‐induced pharmacological effect.

Intermittent Cocaine Self‐Administration but not Passive Cocaine Infusions Reduces H‐Current in Putative Dopaminergic Neurons of the Ventral Tegmental Area

Intermittent Access (IntA) cocaine self‐administration is a protocol suggested to better simulate human drug use patterns due to its temporal dynamics of drug administration. IntA is also known to produce incentive salience and psychomotor sensitization. Dopaminergic (DA) neurons display a prominent mixed cation current conductance known as the hyperpolarization‐activated cyclic nucleotide current, or Ih, which contributes to neural processes such as resting membrane potential, firing frequency modulation, and synaptic integration. Previous results from our laboratory demonstrated that Ih amplitude is reduced significantly after cocaine sensitization. This Ih reduction resulted in an increased temporal summation, mean depolarization, and excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) amplitude, all factors related to an enhanced excitability state. Since the cocaine sensitization model involves noncontingent drug injections administered by the experimenter, it is crucial to determine if electrophysiological changes in ventral tegmental area (VTA) DA cells are present when drugs are self‐administered (contingent). In the present study, we explored if DA neurons present an alteration in Ih after exposure to IntA. We hypothesize that VTA DA cells’ Ih modulation is dependent on the associative learning processes acquired during operant conditioning. Using the whole‐cell patch‐clamp technique in brain slices, we investigated the effects of cocaine IntA, and passive cocaine infusions (yoked controls) on Ihamplitude and rebound excitability. Our results demonstrate that an IntA protocol, but not passive cocaine infusions, produces a significant Ih amplitude reduction (P<0.05). No differences in rebound action potentials (APs) were observed. A depolarizing current protocol showed a significant increase in the number of APs (P<0.05). These results suggest that Ih modulation and intrinsic activity regulation are dependent on associative learning to drug cues.

Selective activation of BK channels in small-headed dendritic spines suppresses excitatory postsynaptic potentials.

Dendritic spines are the main receptacles of excitatory information in the brain. Their particular morphology, with a small head connected to the dendrite by a slender neck, has inspired theoretical and experimental work to understand how these structural features affect the processing, storage and integration of synaptic inputs in pyramidal neurons (PNs). The activation of glutamate receptors in spines triggers a large voltage change as well as calcium signals at the spine head. Thus, voltage-gated and calcium-activated potassium channels located in the spine head likely play a key role in synaptic transmission. Here we study the presence and function of large conductance calcium-activated potassium (BK) channels in spines from layer 5 PNs. We found that BK channels are localized to dendrites and spines regardless of their size, but their activity can only be detected in spines with small head volumes (≤0.09μm3 ), which reduces the amplitude of two-photon uncaging excitatory postsynaptic potentials recorded at the soma. In addition, we found that calcium signals in spines with small head volumes are significantly larger than those observed in spines with larger head volumes. In accordance with our experimental data, numerical simulations predict that synaptic inputs impinging onto spines with small head volumes generate voltage responses and calcium signals within the spine head itself that are significantly larger than those observed in spines with larger head volumes, which are sufficient to activate spine BK channels. These results show that BK channels are selectively activated in small-headed spines, suggesting a new level of dendritic spine-mediated regulation of synaptic processing, integration and plasticity in cortical PNs. KEY POINTS: BK channels are expressed in the visual cortex and layer 5 pyramidal neuron somata, dendrites and spines regardless of their size. BK channels are selectively activated in small-headed spines (≤0.09μm3 ), which reduces the amplitude of two-photon (2P) uncaging excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) recorded at the soma. Two-photon imaging revealed that intracellular calcium responses in the head of 2P-activated spines are significantly larger in small-headed spines (≤0.09μm3 ) than in spines with larger head volumes. In accordance with our experimental data, numerical simulations showed that synaptic inputs impinging onto spines with small head volumes (≤0.09μm3 ) generate voltage responses and calcium signals within the spine head itself that are significantly larger than those observed in spines with larger head volumes, sufficient to activate spine BK channels and suppress EPSPs.

Minocycline Improves Memory by Enhancing Hippocampal Synaptic Plasticity and Restoring Antioxidant Enzyme Activity in a Rat Model of Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion.

Oxidative stress plays a crucial role in the impairment of synaptic plasticity following cerebral ischemia, ultimately resulting in memory dysfunction. Hence, the applying antioxidant agents could be beneficial in managing memory deficits after brain ischemia. Minocycline is a tetracycline antibiotic with antioxidant effect. The main objective of this work was to assess the minocycline effect on the impairment of synaptic plasticity and memory after cerebral ischemia-reperfusion in rats. Transient occlusion of common carotid arteries was used to induce ischemiareperfusion injury in rats. Single or multiple (once daily for 7 days) dose(s) of minocycline were administered before (pretreatment) or after (treatment) brain ischemia. Seven days after ischemia-reperfusion, passive avoidance performance, long-term hippocampal potentiation, and the activity of antioxidant enzymes were assessed. The passive avoidance test showed that minocycline (20 and 40 mg/kg) significantly increased step-through latency while reducing the duration of staying in a dark chamber in the treatment (but not pretreatment) group. In electrophysiological experiments, the rats treated (but not pretreated) with minocycline (40 mg/kg) showed a significant increase in the amplitude of the field excitatory postsynaptic potentials in the dentate gyrus area of the hippocampus. The treatment (but not pretreatment) with minocycline (20 and 40 mg/kg) resulted in a significant increase in the activity of catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase in the hippocampus. It was determined that minocycline attenuates memory dysfunction after cerebral ischemia-reperfusion in rats by improving hippocampal synaptic plasticity and restoring antioxidant enzyme activity. Minocycline enhances passive avoidance memory after cerebral ischemia-reperfusion.Minocycline increases enzymatic antioxidant capacity in hippocampal formation.Minocycline improves synaptic plasticity in perforant path-granule cell synapse. Stroke is a common neurological disease with a relatively high mortality rate and disabilities worldwide. More than half of the patients who have had an episode of stroke suffer from the impairment of sensorimotor function and language problems as well as learning and memory disorders. Oxidative stress plays an important role in memory impairment following brain ischemia. Hence, the application of antioxidant agents could be beneficial in managing memory deficits after stroke. Minocycline is a tetracycline antibiotic that is used for the treatment of infectious diseases; it can also function as a potent antioxidant medication. Hence, we hypothesized that minocycline could attenuate memory impairment after brain ischemia. We examined this hypothesis in a rat model of brain ischemia. In this model, the main arteries that supply the brain with oxygenated blood were occluded to induce brain ischemia in the rats. Then, minocycline was administered to the rats, which were subjected to brain ischemia. Seven days later, memory function in the rats was evaluated. The results showed that minocycline could enhance the activity of antioxidant enzymes in the brain, which physiologically fight off oxidative stress. This property of minocycline protects brain cells against ischemic injury and thereby increases the transmission of neuronal signals from one cell to another cell in the memory centers in the brain. These effects ultimately increase the memory function of rats, which was evident in the behavioral memory test. Overall, the study results suggest that minocycline can be considered a memory enhancer drug in patients who suffer from learning and memory disorders following a stroke.

The Protective Effects of Crocin on Input-Output Functions and Long-term Potentiation of Hippocampal CA1 Area in Rats Exposed to Chronic Social Isolated Stress.

The lack of social communication is associated with the primary risk of proper brain functions. It is reported that crocin helps relieve this problem. The present study examined the protective effect of two doses of crocin on Long-term potentiation (LTP) of hippocampal cornu ammonis 1 (CA1) area as a cellular mechanism in rats exposed to chronic social isolated stress. Rats were assigned to the control, sham, isolation stress, and two stress groups (receiving 30 and 60 mg/kg crocin). Chronic isolation stress (CIS) was induced 6 h/d, and crocin was administrated for 21 days. The field excitatory postsynaptic potential (fEPSP) slope and amplitude were measured by input/output functions and LTP induction in the CA1 area of the hippocampus. Also, the corticosterone and glucose levels were assayed in the hippocampus and frontal cortex. The slope and amplitude of fEPSP severity were impaired in both input/output and LTP responses in the CIS group. Crocin at a dose of 30 and particularly 60 mg/kg improved input/output and LTP responses in the CIS group. Also, the corticosterone levels significantly increased in the frontal cortex and especially the hippocampus. In contrast, only a high dose of crocin decreased hippocampal corticosterone levels in the CIS condition. Finally, the glucose levels did not change in the hippocampus and frontal cortex in all experimental groups. The chronic isolation stress impaired neural excitability and Long-term plasticity in the CA1 area due to elevated corticosterone in the hippocampus and probably the frontal cortex. The low and high doses of crocin improved excitability and Long-term plasticity in the chronic isolation stress group by only decreasing corticosterone levels in the hippocampus, but not the frontal cortex. Neuronal excitability and long-term plasticity of CA1 were impaired by chronic isolation stress.The memory was protected by low and particularly high doses of crocin in the chronic isolation stress condition.Crocin decreased the corticosterone levels in hippocampus, but not frontal cortex. The lack of social communication (isolation stress) is associated with the primary risk of brain functions. On the other hand, crocin as one of effective components of saffron is helpful for improvement of memory. Therefore, the protective effect of two doses of crocin on cellular mechanism of memory in rats exposed to chronic social isolated stress was investigated in present study. Chronic isolation stress (CIS) was induced 6h/day, and crocin was administrated for a period of 21 days at two doses of 30 and 60 mg/kg. The electrophysiological and cellular mechanism of memory in the CA1 area of the hippocampus were investigated. Also, the corticosterone and glucose levels were assayed in the hippocampus and frontal cortex. It was concluded that the chronic isolation stress impaired neural excitability and long-term plasticity in the CA1 area due to elevated corticosterone in the hippocampus and probably the frontal cortex. The low and high doses of crocin improved excitability and long-term plasticity in the chronic isolation stress group by only decreasing corticosterone levels in the hippocampus, but not the frontal cortex. Also, the corticosterone levels significantly increased in the frontal cortex and especially the hippocampus. Also, the glucose levels did not change in the hippocampus and frontal cortex in all experimental groups.

Nitric oxide impairs spatial learning and memory in a rat model of Alzheimer’s disease via disturbance of glutamate response in the hippocampal dentate gyrus during spatial learning

Nitric oxide (NO)-dependent pathways may play a significant role in the decline of synaptic and cognitive functions in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, whether NO in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) is involved in the spatial learning and memory impairments of AD by affecting the glutamate (Glu) response during these processes is not well-understood. Here, we prepared an AD rat model by long-term i.p. of D-galactose into ovariectomized rats, and then the effects of L-NMMA (a NO synthase inhibitor) on Glu concentration and amplitude of field excitatory postsynaptic potential (fEPSP) were measured in the DG region during the Morris water maze (MWM) test in freely-moving rats. During the MWM test, compared with the sham group, the escape latency was increased in the place navigation trial, and the percentage of time spent in target quadrant and the number of platform crossings were decreased in the spatial probe trial, in addition, the increase of fEPSP amplitude in the DG was significantly attenuated in AD group rats. L-NMMA significantly attenuated the spatial learning and memory impairment in AD rats, and reversed the inhibitory effect of AD on increase of fEPSP amplitude in the DG during the MWM test. In sham group rats, the Glu level in the DG increased significantly during the MWM test, and this response was markedly enhanced in AD rats. Furthermore, the response of Glu in the DG during spatial learning was recovered by microinjection of L-NMMA into the DG. Our results suggest that NO in the DG impairs spatial learning and memory and related synaptic plasticity in AD rats, by disturbing the Glu response during spatial learning.

The functional properties of synapses made by regenerated axons across spinal cord lesion sites in lamprey.

While the anatomical properties of regenerated axons across spinal cord lesion sites have been studied extensively, little is known of how the functional properties of regenerated synapses compared to those in unlesioned animals. This study aims to compare the properties of synapses made by regenerated axons with unlesioned axons using the lamprey, a model system for spinal injury research, in which functional locomotor recovery after spinal cord lesions is associated with axonal regeneration across the lesion site. Regenerated synapses below the lesion site did not differ from synapses from unlesioned axons with respect to the amplitude and duration of single excitatory postsynaptic potentials. They also showed the same activity-dependent depression over spike trains. However, regenerated synapses did differ from unlesioned synapses as the estimated number of synaptic vesicles was greater and there was evidence for increased postsynaptic quantal amplitude. For axons above the lesion site, the amplitude and duration of single synaptic inputs also did not differ significantly from unlesioned animals. However, in this case, there was evidence of a reduction in release probability and inputs facilitated rather than depressed over spike trains. Synaptic inputs from single regenerated axons below the lesion site thus do not increase in amplitude to compensate for the reduced number of descending axons after functional recovery. However, the postsynaptic input was maintained at the unlesioned level using different synaptic properties. Conversely, the facilitation from the same initial amplitude above the lesion site made the synaptic input over spike trains functionally stronger. This may help to increase propriospinal activity across the lesion site to compensate for the lesion-induced reduction in supraspinal inputs. The animal experiments were approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of Cambridge University.

Electrophysiological study of the interactive role of the cannabinoid breakdown inhibitors and L-type calcium channels on granular neurons in the hippocampal dentate gyrus in rats

ABSTRACT The interaction between L-type voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels and the endocannabinoid system (eCs) in synaptic plasticity is controversial. In the present research, the impact of acute administration of URB597, as an endocannabinoid breakdown inhibitor, was evaluated after chronic injection of verapamil, as a Ca2+ channels blocker, on inducing long-term potentiation (LTP) in the rat’s hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG). Treatment of male Wistar rats was done using intraperitoneal(i.p) injection of verapamil hydrochloride (n = 8) and saline (n = 10), as the solvent of verapamil once a day within 13 days. Anesthetization was done by i.p injection of urethane and the rats were located in the stereotaxic apparatus for surgery, electrode implantation, and field potential recording. After observing a steady-state baseline response, saline or URB597 were injected (n = 9). Measurement of the population spike (PS) amplitude and slope of field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs) in the DG region was performed as a result of perforant pathway (PP) stimulation. Our treatments could inhibit LTP. Our results indicated that the chronic administration of verapamil produced a significant decrease in the slope of fEPSP and PS amplitude. Also, acute URB597 administration decreased the slope of fEPSP and PS amplitude compared to the saline group. Moreover, URB597 administration in combination with chronic administration of verapamil produced a greater decrease in fEPSP slope and PS amplitude than the saline group. These findings indicated that verapamil and URB597 disrupted LTP induction in the DG. Moreover, an interaction was observed between Ca2+ channels and eCs. Therefore, the eCs possibly play a selective role in synaptic plasticity.

The Na+-activated K+ channel Slack contributes to synaptic development and plasticity

Human mutations of the Na+-activated K+ channel Slack (KCNT1) are associated with epilepsy and intellectual disability. Accordingly, Slack knockout mice (Slack−/−) exhibit cognitive flexibility deficits in distinct behavioral tasks. So far, however, the underlying causes as well as the role of Slack in hippocampus-dependent memory functions remain enigmatic. We now report that infant (P6–P14) Slack−/− lack both hippocampal LTD and LTP, likely due to impaired NMDA receptor (NMDAR) signaling. Postsynaptic GluN2B levels are reduced in infant Slack−/−, evidenced by lower amplitudes of NMDAR-meditated excitatory postsynaptic potentials. Low GluN2B affected NMDAR-mediated Ca2+-influx, rendering cultured hippocampal Slack−/−neurons highly insensitive to the GluN2B-specific inhibitor Ro 25-6981. Furthermore, dephosphorylation of the AMPA receptor (AMPAR) subunit GluA1 at S845, which is involved in AMPAR endocytosis during homeostatic and neuromodulator-regulated plasticity, is reduced after chemical LTD (cLTD) in infant Slack−/−. We additionally detect a lack of mGluR-induced LTD in infant Slack−/−, possibly caused by upregulation of the recycling endosome-associated small GTPase Rab4 which might accelerate AMPAR recycling from early endosomes. Interestingly, LTP and mGluR LTD, but not LTD and S845 dephosphorylation after cLTD are restored in adult Slack−/−. This together with normalized expression levels of GluN2B and Rab4 hints to developmental “restoration” of LTP expression despite Slack ablation, whereas in infant and adult brain, NMDAR-dependent LTD induction depends on this channel. Based on the present findings, NMDAR and vesicular transport might represent novel targets for the therapy of intellectual disability associated with Slack mutations. Consequently, careful modulation of hippocampal Slack activity should also improve learning abilities.

REM Sleep Deprivation Impairs Learning and Memory by Decreasing Brain O-GlcNAc Cycling in Mouse.

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is implicated learning and memory (L/M) functions and hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP). Here, we demonstrate that REM sleep deprivation (REMSD)-induced impairment of contextual fear memory in mouse is linked to a reduction in hexosamine biosynthetic pathway (HBP)/O-GlcNAc flux in mouse brain. In mice exposed to REMSD, O-GlcNAcylation, and O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) were downregulated while O-GlcNAcase was upregulated compared to control mouse brain. Foot shock fear conditioning (FC) induced activation of protein kinase A (PKA) and cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), which were significantly inhibited in brains of the REMSD group. Intriguingly, REMSD-induced defects in L/M functions and FC-induced PKA/CREB activation were restored upon increasing O-GlcNAc cycling with glucosamine (GlcN) or Thiamet G. Furthermore, Thiamet G restored the REMSD-induced decrease in dendritic spine density. Suppression of O-GlcNAcylation by the glutamine fructose-6-phosphate amidotransferase (GFAT) inhibitor, 6-diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine (DON), or OGT inhibitor, OSMI-1, impaired memory function, and inhibited FC-induced PKA/CREB activation. DON additionally reduced the amplitude of baseline field excitatory postsynaptic potential (fEPSP) and magnitude of long-term potentiation (LTP) in normal mouse hippocampal slices. To our knowledge, this is the first study to provide comprehensive evidence of dynamic O-GlcNAcylation changes during the L/M process in mice and defects in this pathway in the brain of REM sleep-deprived mice. Our collective results highlight HBP/O-GlcNAc cycling as a novel molecular link between sleep and cognitive function.

Comparing the effects of crocin at different doses on excitability and long-term potentiation in the CA1 area, as well as the electroencephalogram responses of rats under chronic stress.

Stress adversely affects the cellular and electrophysiological mechanisms of memory; however, crocin has beneficial effects on brain functions. Nonetheless, the electrophysiological effects of using this active saffron component at different doses are not yet studied in rats under chronic restraint stress. Therefore, this study compared the impact of crocin at different doses on the excitability and long-term potentiation(LTP) in the CA1 area of rats, as well as their electroencephalogram(EEG) responses, hippocampal and frontal cortical glucose levels under chronic restraint stress (an emotional stress model).Forty rats were allocated into five groups of control, sham, restraint stress (6h/day/21days), and two stress groups receiving intraperitoneal injections of crocin (30, 60mg/kg/day). Besides measuring the slope and amplitude of field excitatory postsynaptic potentials(fEPSPs) in the input-output and LTP curves, the EEG waves and hippocampal and frontal cortical glucose levels were assessed in all groups.Chronic restraint stress significantly decreased the fEPSP slope and amplitude in the input-output curves and after LTP induction. Both doses of crocin (60and particularly 30mg/kg) significantly improved fEPSP slope and amplitude in the stressed groups. Also, stress and crocin only at a dose of 30mg/kg altered the EEG waves. Hippocampal and frontal cortical glucose levels displayed no significant differences in the experimental groups.Crocin at doses of 60mg/kg/day and particularly 30mg/kg/day reversed the harmful effects of chronic restraint stress on LTP as a cellular memory-related mechanism. However, only the lower dose of crocin affected the electrical brain activity in EEG.

Effects of the hydroalcoholic extract of Rosa damascena on hippocampal long-term potentiation in rats fed high-fat diet

High-fat diets (HFDs) and obesity can cause serious health problems, such as neurodegenerative diseases and cognitive impairments. Consumption of HFD is associated with reduction in hippocampal synaptic plasticity. Rosa damascena (R. damascena) is traditionally used as a dietary supplement for many disorders. This study was carried out to determine the beneficial effect of hydroalcoholic extract of R. damascena on in vivo hippocampal synaptic plasticity (long-term potentiation, LTP) in the perforant pathway (PP)—dentate gyrus (DG) pathway in rats fed with an HFD. Male Wistar rats were randomly assigned to four groups: Control, R. damascena extract (1 g/kg bw daily for 30 days), HFD (for 90 days) and HFD + extract. The population spike (PS) amplitude and slope of excitatory post-synaptic potentials (EPSP) were measured in DG area in response to stimulation applied to the PP. Serum oxidative stress biomarkers [total thiol group (TTG) and superoxide dismutase (SOD)] were measured. The results showed the HFD impaired LTP induction in the PP-DG synapses. This conclusion is supported by decreased EPSP slope and PS amplitude of LTP. R. damascena supplementation in HFD animals enhanced EPSP slope and PS amplitude of LTP in the granular cell of DG. Consumption of HFD decreased TTG and SOD. R. damascena extract consumption in the HFD animals enhanced TTG and SOD. These data indicate that R. damascena dietary supplementation can ameliorate HFD-induced alteration of synaptic plasticity, probably through its significant antioxidant effects and activate signalling pathways, which are critical in controlling synaptic plasticity.