Alcohol Composites Research Articles

Thermally stable, mechanically strong, easily biodegradable and water-resistant Poly(vinyl alcohol) composites crosslinked by supported crosslinker

Water-resistant Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) materials integrated with excellent mechanical strength and simultaneously high thermal stability would be of great use in many fields, however their fabrication has been proven to be a big challenge. Here, the concept of supported crosslinker for PVA crosslinking was proposed and prepared by using halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) as supporter and reactive 3-glycidyloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (KH560) grafted on HNTs surface as crosslinker. The resultant PVA composites (c-PVA/HNTs-s-560) crosslinked with supported crosslinker (HNTs-s-560) shows high tensile strength (which is 20% higher than PVA composites with physically blended HNTs-s-560 (PVA/HNTs-s-560) and 40% higher than pure PVA) and excellent thermal stability (the maximum decomposition temperature is 21 °C higher than that of PVA/HNTs-s-560). Moreover, c-PVA/HNTs-s-560 has higher weight loss after soil burial tests for 90 days and higher tensile strength (110%) after immersion in water at room temperature for 15 days than that of PVA/HNTs-s-560, indicating the easy biodegradability and excellent water resistance of c-PVA/HNTs-s-560. The smart design of making mechanically strong and thermally stable inorganic nanofiller as building blocks of the crosslinked PVA network using a supported crosslinker is responsible for the excellent comprehensive performance of c-PVA/HNTs-s-560 and this work may open an avenue toward the development of PVA-based smart materials.

Elevated nitrogen fertilization differentially affects jojoba wax phytochemicals, fatty acids and fatty alcohols.

Jojoba wax is gaining popularity among cosmetics consumers for its skin wound healing and rejuvenation bioactivities, attributed to collagen and hyaluronic acid synthesis. However, information regarding wax phytochemical composition and quality parameters, as well as effect of cultivation practices, and fertilization in particular, on wax quality is limited. The aim of the current work was to study the effect of nitrogen (N) availability to jojoba plants on wax phytochemical composition and beneficial skin-related contents. For this, wax quality from a six-year fertilization experiment with five N application levels was evaluated. The chemical parameters included antioxidant activity, free fatty acid, total tocopherol, total phytosterol and oxidative stability, as well as fatty acid and fatty alcohol profile. Our results reveal that the majority of wax quality traits were affected by N fertilization level, either positively or negatively. Interestingly, while fatty acids were unaffected, fatty alcohol composition was significantly altered by N level. Additionally, fruit load also largely affected wax quality, and, due to jojoba's biennial alternate bearing cycles, harvest year significantly affected all measured parameters. Results shed light on the effects of N application on various biochemical constituents of jojoba wax, and imply that N availability should be considered part of the entire agricultural management plan to enhance wax quality. Some traits are also suggested as possible chemical quality parameters for jojoba wax.

Highly water-dispersible methylpyridinium salt functionalized reduced graphene oxide and poly(vinyl alcohol) composites

The main issues with developing graphene as a reinforcement are its mono-dispersive properties and strong interfacial bonding between matrix and graphene. In this study, we synthesized reduced graphene oxide (rGO) that is mono-dispersive in polar solvents, by designing structural isomers (-para and -meta) for poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) nanocomposites. The hydrazine-methylpyridine synthesized with different structural isomers was used to reduce and functionalize graphene oxide (GO). The -meta structural isomers showed a higher reduction rate and functional groups on GO than -para due to the difference in electrophilic strain. In particular, the prepared rGO reduced by meta-hydrazine-methylpyridine (m-Py-rGO) exhibited excellent mono dispersive characteristics in water solvents as well as in PVA matrix. As a result, nanocomposites containing 1 wt % m-Py-rGO increased in tensile strength and modulus by 48 % (85.95 MPa) and 82 % (4.27 GPa), respectively, compared to pristine PVA. In this study, a method for manufacturing rGO with excellent dispersibility in water, an inexpensive solvent, and its application method are presented.

Efficient removal of ethidium bromide from aqueous solutions using chromatin-loaded chitosan polyvinyl alcohol composites.

In this work, a novel chromatin-loaded chitosan polyvinyl alcohol composite was developed as a simple, efficient and environmentally friendly adsorbent for the efficient removal of ethidium bromide (EtBr). SEM images showed that the composites were characterized by dense porous and uniformly distributed morphology. The BET analysis showed the presence of mesopores and macropores in the composites. FTIR and XRD results showed that the chromatin was uniformly dispersed in the chitosan-polyvinyl alcohol carrier through hydrogen bonding. The fluorescence microscopy images showed the change of fluorescence effect before and after the adsorption of the material, which indicated that the chromatin was uniformly distributed in the composites and had a good adsorption effect. The optimal experimental conditions were T = 30℃, t = 120min, pH = 7.4, m = 0.2g when the composite with only 5% chromatin content had the ability to adsorb EtBr efficiently (minimum concentration 2mg·L-1: adsorption rate 99%; maximum concentration 20mg·L-1: adsorption rate 90%).The adsorption kinetics and thermodynamics showed that the EtBr adsorption kinetics of the composite conformed to the pseudo-second-order kinetic model (0.995 < R2 < 0.999) and the Freundlich isothermal model, and was a spontaneous process (ΔH < 0). This study on the immobilization of chromatin will provide a new way and reference for the application of chromatin in the treatment of EtBr pollutants.

Evaluating the Volume Ratio Effect on Absorption Time of Polyvinyl Alcohol-Sodium Alginate Based Fiber Membranes as a Wound Dressing

This research was observed absorption of the membrane PVA/SA fiber as wound dressing. The electrospinning method is used to make fiber membranes. This method with a volume ratio composition of Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) - sodium alginate (SA) (PVA/ SA) of 9 :1 (v/v), 8:2 (v/v), and 7:3 (v/v). The PVA/SA membrane was characterized with absorption characterization-water absorption test, morphology and fiber diameter. Absorption characterization-water absorption test results that the fastest absorption time occurred on the PVA/SA fiber membrane with a ratio of 7:3 (v/v). From the SEM results, it is known that the morphology of the PVA/SA membrane shows a fiber size with a uniform diameter. The fiber diameter decreases as it increases SA volume fraction. Fibers with a small diameter will have a large surface area and absorb liquid more quickly. Keywords: electrospinning, wound dressing, absorption characterization-water absorption test, size fiber

Differential Thermal Analysis of Polyvinyl Alcohol Nanocomposite with Rice Husk Ash as a Filler

Nanoparticles of polyvinyl alcohol with rice husk ash as a filler for strong polymer material candidates have been prepared through the sol-gel method. Rice husk ash is a waste product obtained from the combustion of rice husks at a controlled temperature and possesses high pozzolanic properties due to its silica content. Ball milling and co-precipitation methods were employed on the rice husk ash to create nanoparticle materials. To produce nanocomposite membranes, a polyvinyl alcohol solution was utilized as a solvent through the sol-gel method. The nanocomposite samples of rice husk ash were analyzed thermally to determine the material’s response to temperature. Various nanocomposite compositions of polyvinyl alcohol and rice husk ash were used, including 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%. Based on the thermal analysis, it is evident that there were changes in enthalpy (H) and mass characteristics in all five samples.

A thin film resistive humidity sensor based on polymer and carbon black nanoparticle composites

This paper proposes a resistive humidity sensor that uses a carbon-black and polyvinyl alcohol composites thin film, fabricated with a unique film coating method for thinner thickness and higher sensitivity. Improving the sensitivity of sensing films is still of great importance in the research field of gas sensors. The humidity sensor devices with thin composite film and microelectrode structure are fabricated on the glass substrate for a low cost and a simple fabrication process. The sensor gives a rapid response for humidity levels from 10.9% relative humidity (RH) to 73.7% RH, and the response time is about 5.77 s. Experimental results reveal that the sensor has good sensitivity, reproducibility, fast reaction time, and wide range. In addition to humidity, the sensor also responds well to gases such as ethanol. The proposed gas sensor in this paper can be applied to the other combinations of polymers and nanoparticles to form new gas sensors, which have the potential to be used as a gas sensor array for detecting the composition of complex gases such as volatile organic components.

Study of the Chemical Composition of Carica papaya L. Seed Oils of Various Geographic Origins

The papaya plant (Carica papaya L.) is tree-like fruit plant cultivated throughout the tropics and subtropics. The aim of this study was to compare the physicochemical properties, fatty acid, sterols, and triterpenic alcohols composition of Carica papaya L. seed oils grown in a typical geographical location and Carica papaya L. seed oils grown in an untypical geographical location in greenhouse conditions (Saratov Region, Russia). The oils were extracted from the seeds of Carica papaya L. fruits collected in Kenya, the Dominican Republic, Angola, Ghana, and Brazil, as well as from the seeds of fruit plants grown in a similar environment (Russian Federation, Saratov). Parameters such as the oil yield, refractive index, peroxide value, iodine value, saponification value, and acid value of the extracted Carica papaya L. seed oils were determined. The qualitative and quantitative chemical compositions of the seed oils were determined by a combination of mass spectrometry and NMR spectroscopy. The profiles as well as the content of fatty acids, sterols, triterpenic alcohols, and benzyl isothiocyanate were established. The saponifiable fraction of the oils is mainly represented by triglycerides (98.7–99.4%), while di-(0.4–1.1%) and monoglycerides (0.1–0.3%) are also present but in smaller amounts. The content of sterols and triterpene alcohols was (537.5–918.2) mg/100 g of oil (0.54–0.92%), and up to 75% of the fraction was represented by β-sitosterol (55.9–66.7%) and its saturated analogue-sitostanol (11.0–15.7%). The physicochemical properties and the fatty acid, sterol, and triterpenic alcohol composition of seed oils from Carica papaya L. fruits, cultivated in Russia, is in the quantitative range of other samples, which suggests that Carica papaya L. can be grown in Russia for obtaining the seed oil.

Bio-oil production from pyrolysis of Polypropylene using dolomite catalyst

Polypropylene is converted into bio-oil through catalytic pyrolysis using dolomite as a catalyst. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of using dolomite directly without prior treatment on the bio-oil produced from the pyrolysis of propylene plastic. The amount of loading catalyst used is 5%. Increasing the pyrolysis temperature from 350 to 450 ℃ increased bio-oil from 35.56 wt% to 64.84 wt% by reducing gas to 21.08 wt%. In thermal pyrolysis, the production of bio-oil is 85 wt% with 19.30 wt% char. In the GC-MS analysis of bio-oil from thermal and catalystic pyrolysis, the most dominant alcohol composition was obtained. Based on the result of the analysis, it can be concluded that the bio-oil obtained can be further developed into fuel.

Measurement and modeling of surface tension of binary mixtures containing N,N-dimethylcyclohexylamine and alcohols

In this work, the surface tension of the six binary systems containing N, N-dimethylcyclohexylamine (DMCHA) and alcohol (1-pentanol, 1-hexanol, 1-heptanol, 1-octanol, 1-nonanol or 1-decanol) was measured over the whole DMCHA concentration at the temperatures of (293.15 to 323.15) K and 101 kPa. Based on the experimental data, surface tension deviation (Δσ) was calculated. The values are positive for all the binary mixtures and decreased with chain length of alcohols. The results were correlated using different models. The surface tensions were fitted by Fu-Li-Wang (FLW) model with stand deviations (S) less than 0.122. The surface tension deviations were well fitted by Myers-Scott (MS) and Redlich-Kister (RK) equations with S ≤ 0.052. Additionally, according to the relationship of surface tension and temperature, the thermodynamic properties, surface enthalpy (Hγ) and surface entropy (Sγ), were also estimated. All the above results were further analyzed and discussed in terms of temperature, composition and chain length of alcohol.

Sonochemical synthesis of lignin nanoparticles and their applications in poly (vinyl) alcohol composites

Lignin is a common and abundant byproduct of the pulp and paper industry and is generally burned to produce steam. Opportunities exist to acquire greater value from lignin by leveraging the properties of this highly conjugated biomacromolecule for applications in UV absorption and polymer reinforcement. These applications can be commercialized by producing value-added lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) using a scalable sonochemical process. In the present research, monodisperse LNPs have been synthesized by subjecting aqueous dispersions of alkali lignin to acoustic irradiation. The resulting particle size distribution and colloidal stability, as determined by dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy and zeta potential analysis, of LNPs can be adjusted by varying the solution pH and ultrasonication energy. As-synthesized LNPs with a mean diameter of 204 nm were incorporated into poly (vinyl) alcohol (PVA) to prepare thin and flexible nanocomposite films using a simple solvent casting method. The addition of 2.5 wt% LNP increased the material's Sun Protection Factor up to 26 compared to 0 for neat PVA, while maintaining light transmission above 75 % in the visible spectra. In addition, the tensile strength and elastic modulus of the PVA nanocomposites improved by 47 % and 36 %, respectively. The presence of LNP also enhanced the thermal stability of the materials. Significantly, the proposed sonochemical process may be generally applicable to the synthesis of a range of naturally-derived LNPs for a variety of value-added applications.

Surface replication and characterization of ultrahigh-pressure homogenizer treated cellulose nanofiber-reinforced polyvinyl alcohol composites by thermal imprinting

Surface replication and characterization of ultrahigh-pressure homogenizer treated cellulose nanofiber-reinforced polyvinyl alcohol composites by thermal imprinting

Komposit Zeolit-Polivinil Alkohol sebagai Adsorben untuk Menurunkan Kesadahan Air Tanah

Granular zeolite-polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) composites without glutralaldehyde and zeolite-PVA composites with the addition of glutaraldehyde were carried out in this study and used as adsorbents. This study aims to reduce groundwater hardness, determine the optimum zeolite size in composite mixtures, and determine the characterization of functional groups in composites. The stages of the research included: preparation and activation of zeolite with variations in zeolite sizes of 100, 60 and 45 mesh and variations in composition of zeolite-polyvinyl alcohol 1:1; 1:2; 2:1; 2:3 and 3:2. Furthermore, the preparation of PVA solution concentration of 9% and the formation of the composite. The results showed that the optimum size of the zeolite on the composite without glutaraldehyde was 60 mesh with a decrease in hardness of 68% while the ratio of the optimum zeolite-PVA composition was at a ratio of 3:2 with a decrease in hardness of 34 mg/L. The results of Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm analysis showed the presence of chemical bonds because the determination value (R2) of the adsorption isotherm was &gt; 0.9. The results of functional group characterization showed OH- in the zeolite-PVA composite without glutaraldehyde at a wavelength of 3363.01 cm-1 while in the composite with glutaraldehyde at a wavelength of 3345.89 cm-1. The C=C functional group appeared at a wavelength of 1628.73 cm-1 for the zeolite-PVA composite without glutaraldehyde and 1635.86 cm-1 for the composite with glutaraldehyde. At a wavelength of 788.70 cm-1 and 794.40 cm-1, the Si-O symmetric stretching vibrations show in the zeolite structure.

Analisis Sifat Fisis dan Mekanik Biodegradable Foam Berbahan Dasar Selulosa Jerami Padi dan Polivinyl Alcohol

Research has been carried out on analyzing the physical and mechanical properties of biodegradable foam made from rice straw cellulose with a polyvinyl alcohol binding matrix. This study aims to produce a substitute for styrofoam, which is considered not environmentally friendly and harmful to health. The composition of straw fiber and polyvinyl alcohol was varied by the mass ratio of the mixture of rice straw fiber and PVA (%) 40:20%, 30:30%, 20:40%, 50:10%, with the size of the fiber passing through the 80 mesh sieve. The results of the characterization using FT-IR showed that the highest content of functional groups was carbon (C), which corresponds to the content of conventional biofoam, which consists of the elements carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). The highest biofoam tensile strength value is in the comparison fraction (20:40%) of 18.11 MPa. The highest percentage of biofoam water absorption was obtained in the fraction ratio (50:10%) of 0.8928% in the treated sample and 1.1928% in the untreated sample. The percentage of biofoam water content closest to conventional biofoam water content is obtained at a fraction ratio (40:20%) of 0.78%. The highest degradation rate was obtained in samples with a comparative fraction (50:10%) of 0.04237%/day in treated and 0.06403%/day in untreated samples. The results of this study stated that the resulting biofoam did not contain harmful substances. After identifying the functional groups using the FT-IR test, the tensile strength of biofoam still did not meet the SNI 7188.7: 2016 bioplastic standard.

Molecular simulation of the effects of water on the interface of plant fiber/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) composites prepared by dry preparation method (DPM)

The preparation of a composite material based on plant fiber that contains water and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) powder was analyzed by molecular dynamic simulations. The results show that water migration from cellulose under specific temperature and pressure conditions is influenced by its hydrogen bonding with different components. Water strongly hydrogen bonded to plant fiber migrates with difficulty, whereas weakly hydrogen bonded water migrates to the interfacial layer to form stable hydrogen bonded bridges. Water molecules not captured by the interfacial layer migrate to the PVA phase and form new hydrogen bonds that have a plasticizing effect for PVA. The plasticized PVA can better coat the plant fiber, forming more hydrogen bonds between PVA and plant fiber. Hydrogen bonding bridges formed by water at the interface strengthen the interfacial bonding. Simulation and experimental results show that PVA with a lower molecular weight has stronger interfacial binding strength with the plant fiber, giving a higher modulus. The appropriate plant fiber water content achieves the optimal composite mechanical properties. Water has a significant role in the interfacial enhancement of plant fiber/PVA composite materials prepared by the dry preparation method.

Influences of alcohols, urea and polyethylene glycol on the cloudy formation nature and physico-chemical parameters of the mixture of triton X-100 and ceftriaxone sodium salt

The phase separation of a nonionic surfactant (SFT), Triton X-100 (TX-100) and ceftriaxone sodium trihydrate (CTS) drug mixture was examined in the appearance of several alcohols (ethanol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol, 2-butanol) and hydrotropes (HDTs) (urea and polyethylene glycol (PEG)). The influences of changing composition and chain length of alcohols on the cloud points of aqueous TX-100 + CTS mixture were also assessed. The detected CP values were found to undergo an upsurge with the increased concentration of alcohols and HDTs. The computed ∆Gc0 values are acquired be positive in nature, demonstrating that the clouding of employed system was non-spontaneous in origin and the positive ∆Gc0 values were reduced with the growth of the contents of alcohols/HDTs. The obtained values of enthalpy (∆Hc0) and entropy (∆Sc0) were positive in magnitudes for most of the employed solvents with a few exceptions. The values of ∆Hc0 and ∆Sc0 were achieved as negative at lower contents of 2-butanol and highest content of urea/PEG. The enthalpy-entropy compensation variables (∆Hc0,*and Tc) associated with the clouding process of TX-100 + CTS mixture in aq. additive solutions were also calculated and interpreted in detailed way.

Graphene Nanoplatelet and Multiwalled Carbon Nanotube Doping Effect on the Structural and Physical Properties of PolyVinyl Alcohol Composites

Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) composite thin films were prepared using graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) as carbon fillers (CFs). The resulting electrical, optical, mechanical, and structural changes caused by adding the CFs to the pure PVA matrix were characterized. The improvement of electrical, optical, and mechanical properties was interpreted in terms of the percolation theory. Depending on this interpretation, the percolation threshold values, and the critical exponential values of the related properties were calculated. It turns out that the measured mechanical and optical changes were compatible with the site percolation theory while the electrical conductivity was compatible with the classical percolation theory. X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements were performed to correlate the physical properties with the structure of the PVA composite films. They revealed that the degree of crystallinity of the composites increased with the CF reinforcement and that MWCNT was more effective in improvement of the crystallinity of the PVA composites than GNP.

Utilisation of waste wool through fabrication of 3D water-resistant polyvinyl alcohol composite: Impact of micro-sized wool powders

Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is a biodegradable polymer that has applications in several industries, such as textiles and paper manufacturing. Due to the water solubility, it is also a useful solvent in 3D dispensing to extrude printable solutions at a low temperature. However, its hydrophilicity is a drawback when considering the property of the end-use material if water contact is required. Using the water solubility of PVA as a benefit during 3D dispensing but avoiding the hydrophilicity in the printed material is tricky and unresolved. This study proposes a technique to achieve this phenomenon by taking advantage of the natural hydrophobicity of wool waste by using it as a filler in PVA. There is no previous knowledge on how wool could impact the water resistance characteristic of PVA. Three types of micro-sized wool powder (22.2–46.3 μm) were used and their impact on the wool/PVA (25/75) 3D composite properties was investigated. The wool powders reinforced in PVA were able to resist water drops from penetrating the surface for the full length of the experiment (10 min). Water solubility test also showed a greater resistance of the 3D composite samples due to the incorporation of wool powders. Though tensile strength and crystallinity of PVA were decreased by including the wool particles, powders prepared with finer wool showed minimum influence on this reduction. The rheology and thermal properties also suggested better compatibility in the wool/PVA system when finer wool was used. Overall results indicate that wool waste could be effectively utilised to naturally induce water-resistant performance in PVA composite. This finding could be beneficial not only in 3D dispensing, but also in many other areas, such as packaging, where the use of PVA is still limited due to its sensitivity to water.

ZIF-67 grafted-boehmite-PVA composite membranes with enhanced removal efficiency towards Cr(VI) from aqueous solutions

In this work, we developed a thin membrane of boehmite-polyvinyl alcohol composite (BOPOM) (diameter ∼ 5 cm) grafted ZIF-67 combing sol-gel and in-situ growth methods. The fabricated materials were characterized using FT-IR, SEM, XRD, TGA, XPS, and N2 sorption techniques. Results indicate that ZIF-67 nanocrystals were well-grafted into the AlOOH-PVA matrix with reduced crystallite size. Furthermore, the decorated ZIF-67 offered additional porous structures and adsorption sites onto the membrane, enhancing their removal efficiency towards Cr6+ compared to the undecorated and pristine ZIF-67. At pH ∼5.5, the harvested ZIF-67/BOPOM exhibited the highest Cr6+ uptake capacity of ∼56.4 mg g−1. Kinetic studies showed that the chromium adsorption on the prepared materials obeyed the pseudo-second-order model, and the kinetic parameters followed the order ZIFF-67/BOPOM (0.020 mg g−1 min−1) > BOPOM (0.011 mg g−1 min−1) > ZIF-67 (0.006 mg g−1 min−1). Notably, the adsorption mechanism study revealed that adsorbed Cr6+ was reduced to Cr3+, and the reduction yield was boosted owing to grafting ZIF-67 into the BOPOM. In addition, the fabricated ZIF-67/BOPOM can simultaneously remove Cr6+ and methyl orange dye (MO) in the solution due to their synergetic effects on each other. Furthermore, the hybrid membrane ZIF-67/BOPOM showed a chromium removal efficiency of ∼78.2% after four successive adsorption-desorption cycles. This study indicates that grafting nanocrystals ZIF-67 onto the super-platform boehmite-PVA is a promising strategy to harvest an adsorbent with a high adsorption ability, cost-effectiveness, and reduced secondary pollution risks.

Expanded glass sphere/lauryl alcohol composite in gypsum: Physico-mechanical properties, energy storage performance and environmental impact assessment

In recent years, thermal energy storage systems, which are a promising solution to improve the thermal comfort of buildings and reduce energy demand, are a critical issue. This study aims to develop a new shape-stable gypsum composite using expanded glass sphere (EGS) and lauryl alcohol (LA) and analyses its thermal performances. For this purpose, EGS was impregnated with LA in different mass fractions (25 and 50%) by direct impregnation technique. DSC results exposed that melting temperature and melting enthalpy of shape-stable EGS/LA composite were 20.97 °C and 83.1 J/g, respectively. FTIR investigations confirmed the existence of well chemical compatibility between EGS and LA. TGA analysis revealed that the operating temperature of EGS/LA was considerably lower than its thermal degradation temperature. While incorporation of EGS and EGS/LA composite increases water absorption and porosity; caused a decrease in compressive strength, dry unit weight and ultrasound pulse velocity properties. EGS/Gypsum composite with LA (50%) provided a warmer room temperature for more than 12 h between midnight and solar noon hours. It achieved about 2 ℃ warmer room during these hours. After solar noon hours, proposed composite attained about 3.6 ℃ cooler room center temperatures. It provided cooler indoor temperatures for more than 5 h. A warmer indoor temperature was observed for EGS/Gypsum composite with LA (50%) after 18:00 until midnight to be 2 ℃. It can provide a carbon emission saving of around 3–23.2 kg-CO2/kWh, depending on fuel type for a wall cover made of EGS/Gypsum with LA.