Aircrew Training Research Articles

The role of information feedback in aircrew training and its impact on the debriefing facilities

In the few moments that I have, I would like to discuss in very general terms the role of information feedback in aircrew training and make the case that there is a need for improved computer-based debriefing aids. I am sure that there is little disagreement today that flight simulators offer a range of benefits. Such things as cost savings, reduced energy expenditure, safety and availability have been mentioned again and again. However, the most important benefit to be derived, namely training, is often-times overlooked. The assumption is often made that a good simulator, in terms of its fidelity, will lead to good training. While there are certainly examples of this, there are also cases of good simulators providing poor training because of improper utilisation, and cases of poor simulators providing very good training. The key appears to be in the proper utilisation of the simulator as a trainer, which in turn, is partially based on the simulators instructional features.

Low cost aircrew training devices

The purpose of this talk is to describe some of the more simple aids used in the training of aircrew and to illustrate how they can be integrated with flight simulators and aircraft to form a systematic approach to aircrew training. Of course, low cost aids do not solve all training problems, neither can they replace the aircraft or the flight simulator for many tasks, but they are worth examining for reasons which will appear in this paper.As a start, it might be useful to look at a typical flight simulator and note some of its characteristics as a teaching device.

An evaluation of the Nimrod Maritime Crew Trainer — a case study

The need for hard data regarding the contribution made by flight simulators during aircrew training has been widely recognised by many authors, including Caro, Rolfe and Roscoe, and many complementary strategies or experimental paradigms for obtaining such data have been advanced, ranging from the conduct of carefully structured and controlled experimental studies to the collation of data obtained during on-going training programmes.Within the military context at least two current developments point towards the need for additional data regarding the effectiveness of flight simulators. The first is the increasing potential of complex full mission capable simulators, where developments particularly in the visual area, are extending the ability of simulators to replicate the most demanding segments of fast-jet combat missions including low level tactical manoeuvring and target acquisition and weapon delivery.

Development of a Simulator Certification (Simcert) Methodology for SAC

Air Force Regulation 50-11 (October 1977) requires that all new and existing aircrew training devices be certified with regard to their ability to provide an effective medium for training and evaluating student performance on specific aircrew training events (SIMCERT). The regulation further requires each using command to develop its own supplement, to guide command-specific programs. Calspan Corporation and the 93 BMW ISD Division joined in developing the Strategic Air Command's SIMCERT program. Phase I was a developmental effort involving literature review, determining SIMCERT objectives and constraints, and developing candidate methodologies. Two SIMCERT methodologies were developed: one for initial qualification training, and one for continuation training. During Phase II, parts of the initial qualification SIMCERT methodology were validated on the Boom Operator Part Task Trainer at Castle AFB, California. This validation effort showed that the methodology met SAC SIMCERT objectives and could be applied using existing resources. The SAC SIMCERT supplement is currently in draft form and will be completed in time for full-scale application to the B-52 and KC-135 Weapon System Trainers.

On the Evaluation of Training Devices

The theme of the paper is ways of evaluating flight simulators for aircrew training. The transfer of training experiment and the rating method are the two present-day ways of evaluating the worth of a simulator. The transfer experiment requires the trainee to practice in the simulator and then be tested in the parent aircraft to demonstrate the training value of the simulator. The rating method requires the pilot to be experienced in the parent aircraft and to rate the simulator for similarity to the aircraft. If similarity is high, the training value is assumed to be high. Arguments are presented that both of these methods are flawed. It is contended that a simulator, or any other system, need not necessarily be tested if it is based on reliable scientific laws and the success of other systems, based on the same laws, has been high. Good laws produce accurate prediction, and when outcome can be predicted it is redundant to conduct a system evaluation. With uncertainty about laws, the requirement for system testing increases. The psychological principles underlying simulators are reviewed.

Simulator Training Requirements and Effectiveness Study (STRES)

A description is provided of a research study being conducted by the United States Air Force with participation by representatives from the Army and Navy. The basic objectives of this study are to define, collect, analyze and present data, findings and conclusions relevant to the use, effectiveness and cost of aircrew training devices. Study philosophy, approach, difficulties and current status are discussed.

Behavioral Data in the Design of Aircrew Training Devices

Attention has recently been focused on the use of ISD behavioral data for specifying aircrew training requirements. However, behavioral data are not sufficient for the actual specification of design of equipment, which frequently represents the major dollar investment for training programs. The paper presents a methodology for designing training equipment. This methodology in some ways goes beyond the collection of behavioral data, and in other ways ayoids the weaknesses of the behavioral data approach. The emphasis is on ensuring that device fidelity requirements are specifically correlated with training requirements. Four critical areas are addressed: (1) acquisition of behavioral data; (2) determination of training capabilities; (3) performance measurement; and (4) special requirements for crew coordination training.

Instructional System Design for Aircrew Training

The use of a systems approach in the development of training programs is a relatively new innovation. This paper describes the methodology and output of the Instructional System Development (ISD) for the four crewmembers of the B-1 air vehicle. One of the most important attributes of the ISD approach is that only performance requirements necessary for completion of the mission are of importance. From the ensemble of these performance requirements and the entering skills and knowledges, the training objectives are identified. Subsequent to the determining of the skills and knowledges for which training is necessary, the objectives (criteria) that the student must meet and the conditions under which they will be accomplished, are specified. Tests are developed to measure the trainee's accomplishment of these criterion objectives. The methods and media considered for the instructional system are quite diverse. The simulation technology of importance to the B-1 training program includes not only complex flight and procedural trainers, but also electronic warfare simulators. The end product of the ISD effort is an efficient training program that is mission oriented rather than training for training's sake.

Navigation Training at the U. S. Air Force Academy

Navigation training at the United States Air Force Academy is unique. The training is directed not only at future Air Force line navigators, but also at future pilots and combat support officers. The courses are designed to acquaint the cadet with the science of navigation rather than to train him to be a navigator. The basic course, Navigation Indoctrination, is the mainstay of the Navigation Division. The course covers basic dead reckoning, map reading, radar, day celestial, weather, airways and instrument flying, and an introduction to advanced techniques and equipment. The Navigation Concepts and Systems Development Course expands on the cadet's basic knowledge and strives to stimulate his mind toward the development and uses of advanced equipment and techniques. Descriptive Astronomy presents the fundamentals of astronomy, properties of the solar system and stellar astronomy. Introduction to Applied Astronomy covers, in the classroom, spherical and stellar astronomy. The course is enriched with laboratory exercises in the Academy's observatory and 50-foot planetarium. In addition to the formal courses taught to cadets, the Navigation Division is completing a research study of training methods for star identification and use of the space sextant. The Skylab astronauts are programmed to start training at the USAF Academy in March of 1972 in preparation for a space navigation experiment. As a motivational introduction to aircrew training, the Navigation Division conducts an “Air Cruise” program each summer. This course introduces the cadet to navigation, navigation training at Mather, and aircrew training with one of the major commands.

Very-High-Resolution Television for Visual Simulation

In all applications of simulation, especially in the fields of aircrew and manned-spaceflight training, it is universally accepted that the greatest single obstacle is the lack of visual displays of satisfactory realism. The recently developed Focus Projection and Scanning (FPS) vidicon provides an ideal means for generating the required high-definition signal. Incorporating new camera circuits and an experimental 2000-scan-line (30-frames/s) camera, the FPS is capable of about 5 arc min of resolution in a 60 × 60° field of view, with a resulting real-time simulation which closely approximates the “real world” visual situation. A description of this system is accompanied by quantitative test results and several photographs. At present, work is in progress to extend the system's capabilities upward by a factor of 2 to 2.5 to permit identical visual simulation acuity for a 120 to 150 × 60° field of view.

The Outlook for Flight Simulators

THE status of the flight simulator for aircrew training has increased considerably the world over during the last five years to the extent that most major airlines now possess any number of simulators between one and twenty or so depending on the variety of aircraft types used and fleet size. Today even second and third level operators are looking to the flight simulator, not only as a means of reducing costs but also to increase standards of safety.

Ear‐to‐ground

General Precision Systems Ltd., of Aylesbury, have developed their Colour Visual Flight Attachment (VFA) to provide added realism for air crew training in flight simulators. Its main use is for instruction in take off, approach and landing under low minima weather conditions, but it can also play an important role in research, as in the case of the newly completed unit for the B.A.C./Sud Concorde, which is to be installed at Toulouse by mid‐August.

Electrocardiography in the selection of Royal Canadian Air Force aircrew.

The electrocardiograms of 5000 healthy adult male applicants for aircrew training have been reviewed. Abnormalities were observed in the tracings of 158 subjects and these were further investigated. T-wave abnormalities occurred in 95 applicants, prolongation of the QRS (including the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome) in 28, prolongation of the P-R interval in 23, and miscellaneous changes in a group of 12 men. In many instances the apparent abnormality could be explained as a variation of normal on repeat study (including multiple lead electrocardiograms). In 27 men (0.54 per cent), 15 of whom revealed some associated clinical cardiovascular findings, a significant abnormality persisted and these were considered as unfit for pilot training.

Analogue computers in aircrew training apparatus

After discussing the economic advantages of training on simulated equipments, some of the problems solved by the computers in flying trainers, engine trainers and track recording will be described. The relative complications of a full flight simulator computer using digital and analogue methods are considered and the analogue type found to be most suitable. The use of the building brick principle is dealt with and details of utilization, running time and percentage serviceability given. Further applications of analogue methods to training equipments are discussed.

Trade Announcements

Civil Aircrew Technical Training Course The College of Aeronautical and Automobile Engineering, Chelsea, started in July a new course of evening classes in aircrew technical training.

The Royal Air Force School of Education

A NEW Royal Air Force School of Education has been opened at Wellesbourne Mountford, near Leamington Spa, and one of its main purposes is to prepare newly appointed education officers for their professional duties in the R.A.F. The School is housed for the present in temporary accommodation because in view of the nature and the importance of the work a start could not be delayed. It is intended, however, to move the School to a more permanent location when this is feasible. Education in the R.A.F. differs little in its background from education in the civilian world. Its immediate purpose is to develop those qualities of mind and character which, while adapting the officer, the airman or the boy apprentice to the exercise of particular duties, yet helps him to achieve a worthwhile personal and social life and to appreciate the duties and privileges of citizenship. On the technical side, too, it is the task of the Education Branch to contribute a theoretical content towards technical and air-crew training of R.A.F. personnel for their day-to-day duties. Naturally the means and conditions through which these tasks are performed in the Service so far differ from those outside as to involve the young education officer in a period of some difficulty until he finds his feet. It is a function of this new school of education to minimize this period, and to orientate the professional qualifications and experience of the newly appointed officer (normally a university graduate and a trained teacher, and preferably with some initial teaching experience) towards his new duties. To this end he is given instruction over a period of four weeks in the organisation and administration of R.A.F. education, in certain aspects of the theory and practice of Service teaching, in the part played by education in maintaining high standards of training and of morale, and in the methods to be employed for education in citizenship and current affairs. In addition to the lectures given by the permanent staff provision is made in the School programme for visiting lecturers of eminence in the civilian world.

DISEASES AND DEFECTS IN AIRCREW TRAINEES: VII. Ear, Nose, Throat and Oral Cavity

THE following material is a report of diseases and defects of the ear, nose, throat and oral cavity in 344,134 applicants for pilot, navigator and bombardier training, found on examination at Army Air Force classification centers and Army Air Force basic training centers. Previous physical examinations for aircrew training had been made on these men at other Army medical facilities (armed force induction center, Army Air Force bases and similar centers). Consequently, the diseases and defects found at this examination developed subsequent to the previous examinations, were overlooked or had not been considered severe enough for disqualification at the original examination. Owing to the selectivity of this group, the incidence of diseases and defects found do not represent those of similar diseases and defects in a cross section of the general male population between the ages of 18 and 26 (age limits for aircrew training). Because of the large number

Roentgen Observations on Primary Atypical Pneumonia

Approximately ten years ago scattered reports began to appear in the foreign literature concerning certain lobular pneumonias of atypical character and distribution associated with unusual clinical findings. Later reports appearing in the American literature (Bowen, Allen, Reimann, Goodpasture and others) established the disease as a new clinical entity of characteristic symptomatology, course, and laboratory findings. Excellent discussions of the clinical and roentgen findings in this disease are to be found in the recent medical literature, but certain features, it is believed, have either escaped notice or have not received the attention they deserve. The observations which are the subject of this paper are derived from a study of approximately 1,500 pneumonia patients admitted to the AAF Regional Station Hospital of the Santa Ana Army Air Base over a period of two years. Of these, approximately 1,200, or 80 per cent, have been clinically classified as suffering from “primary atypical pneumonia.” All have had interval roentgen studies. For the purpose of accurate analysis, the roentgen findings in 300 of these cases have been carefully tabulated. Clinical Aspects One of the most striking features of primary atypical pneumonia, at least to the radiologist, is the relatively mild clinical course of the disease as compared with the amount of infiltration shown on corresponding chest films. In one series of 26,448 routine 4 × 10-inch photoroentgen examinations of the chest on supposedly healthy young adults applying for air crew training, 153, or 0.58 per cent, showed varying degrees of infiltration, usually small in amount, but occasionally occupying as much as one-fourth of a lung field. The findings were confirmed by recheck 14 × 17-inch films, and the subsequent clinical classification was almost invariably primary atypical pneumonia. When questioned, many of these men reported no symptoms of any kind. Others complained only of a recent “cold” or “cough” or of feeling weak, easily fatigued, or “under par.” Patients admitted to the hospital because of a more acute or severe illness complained primarily of fever and chills, cough, general malaise, weakness, and various aches and pains. The onset was usually moderately acute over a period of one to three days. Cough, either dry or productive of slight mucoid sputum, was present in most cases, and was often the outstanding symptom, complained of bitterly because of its persistent, irritating character. A sensation of extreme weakness, fatigue, or exhaustion was one of the most pronounced and also one of the commonest findings. In mild cases, it was sometimes the only symptom. There was often accompanying moderately severe and persistent headache, general aching, or both. Sore throat was frequently present but was seldom severe or the presenting symptom. Chills or chilly sensations and profuse perspiration were encountered commonly, especially in the early stages of the disease.

Some observations on the cardiovascular examination for aircrew fitness

1. 1. Within the cardiovascular examination itself there are many perplexing problems in relation to selection and fitness for aircrew. 2. 2. Normal cardiovascular function in a stable person without historical or clinical evidence of heart disease was the standard originally set for entry for aircrew training. The strain of war demands modification of the standards originally imposed. 3. 3. Personal observations are made on the frequency of normal variations in heart size, shape, and action found in routine examinations on aircrew personnel. Some suggestions are made where relaxation of strict standards could make otherwise acceptable persons eligible for training, without undue hazard to themselves or to the Service. The place of electrocardiography and neurovascular instability in aircrew selection is briefly discussed.

COMPARISON OF THE ISHIHARA AND THE AMERICAN OPTICAL COMPANY SERIES OF PSEUDOISOCHROMATIC PLATES

It has been noted that aviation cadet applicants sometimes pass the American Optical Company series of pseudoisochromatic plates but fail the Ishihara series. Fourteen hundred and seventyone applicants for air crew training were examined by use of the 32 plate Ishihara series, followed by the 46 plate American Optical Company series. The applicant failed if he missed 25 per cent or more of the plates in each book. It was found that 6.6 per cent, or 100, failed the Ishihara series, and 5.7 per cent, or 83, the American Optical Company series. Only 5 of the 83 who failed the American Optical Company series could not trace the gray-blue line in plate 45 of that series, and only 13 of the 100 candidates who failed the Ishihara series did not trace the two gray-blue lines in plates 30 and 31. Fifty-seven of the 83 candidates who failed the American Optical