Aircraft Dynamics Research Articles

Numerical Solution of Burgers Equation Using Finite Difference Methods: Analysis of Shock Waves in Aircraft Dynamics

In this research, the Lax, the Upwind, and the MacCormack finite difference methods are applied to the experimental solving of the one-dimensional (1D) unsteady Burger's Equation, a Hyperbolic Partial Differential Equation. These three numerical analysis-solving methods are implemented for accurate modeling of shock wave behavior high-speed flows that are necessary for aerospace engineering design. This research analysis proves that the MacCormack technique is the one that treats the differential equations with second-order accuracy. This method is quite preferred when it comes to numerical simulations because of its advanced level of accuracy. Although the Upwind and Lax methods are slightly less accurate, they show the development of shock waves that give visualizations to better understand the flow dynamics. Also, in this study, the impact of varying viscosity coefficients on fluid flow characteristics by using the lax (a numerical method for solving the viscous Burgers equation) is investigated. This identification of the phenomenon sheds light on the behavior of boundary layers, which, in turn, can be used to improve the design of high-speed vehicles and lead to a greater understanding of the area of ​​fluid dynamics.

Winch Traction Dynamics for a Carrier-Based Aircraft Under Trajectory Control on a Small Deck in Complex Sea Conditions

When the winch traction system of a carrier-based aircraft works under complex sea conditions, the rope and the tire forces are greatly changed compared with under simple sea conditions, and it poses a potential threat to the safety and stability of the aircraft’s traction system. The accurate calculation of the rope and tire forces of a carrier-based aircraft’s winch traction under complex sea conditions is an arduous problem. A novel method of dynamic analysis of the aircraft-winch-ship whole system under complex sea conditions is proposed. A multiple-frequency excitation is adopted to describe the complex sea conditions and the influences of pitching amplitude, and the rolling frequency on the traction dynamics of a carrier-based aircraft along the setting trajectory under complex sea conditions are studied. The advantages and disadvantages of a winch traction system with trajectory control and without trajectory control in complex sea conditions are analyzed. For realizing the trajectory control of the aircraft, the vector difference between the center of mass for the carrier-based aircraft and the position on the predetermined Bessel curve is calculated, so as to obtain the azimuth vector in the aircraft coordinate system. This research is innovative in the modeling of the whole system and the trajectory control of a carrier-based aircraft’s winch traction system under the complicated sea condition of the multi-frequency excitation. ADAMS (Automatic Dynamic Analysis of Mechanical System) is used to verify the correctness of the theoretical calculation for the winch traction. The results show that the complex sea environment has a certain influence on the winch traction safety of the aircraft; in the range of 10–15 s for the traction, the rope force amplitude of complex sea conditions under the multi-frequency excitation is 29.5% larger than that of the single-frequency amplitude, while the vertical force amplitude of the tire is 201.1% larger than that of the single-frequency amplitude. This research has important guiding significance for the selection of rope and tire models for a carrier-borne aircraft’s winch traction in complex sea conditions.

Output feedback fault-tolerant Q-learning for discrete-time linear systems with actuator faults

This paper presents an innovative output feedback fault-tolerant Q-learning algorithm that can be implemented online without relying on explicit system models or fault details. In the face of actuator faults, finding optimal Fault-Tolerant Control (FTC) solutions that can stabilize the faulty system poses significant challenges. The proposed approach is implemented online without the need for system dynamics and actuator fault information. Furthermore, it operates without relying on full state measurements, utilizing only the input-output data of the faulty system. An innovative representation of the output feedback Fault-Tolerant Q-function (FTQF) is established using input-output data. Subsequently, a model-free optimal output feedback FTC policy is obtained from the developed FTQF. Then, a fault-tolerant Q-learning algorithm is formulated to iteratively acquire the optimal FTC policy in real-time, eliminating the necessity for system dynamics and actuator fault information. The proposed algorithm exhibits immunity to excitation noise bias, even without considering a discounting factor. Furthermore, the proposed Q-learning approach is proven to be effective in stabilizing faulty closed-loop system. Finally, the proposed algorithm's efficiency is validated through numerical simulations of F-16 autopilot aircraft dynamics.

Evaluating Reduced-Order Urban Wind Models for Simulating Flight Dynamics of Advanced Aerial Mobility Aircraft

Advanced Aerial Mobility (AAM) platforms are poised to begin high-density operations in urban areas nationwide. This new category of aviation platforms spans a broad range of sizes, from small package delivery drones to passenger-carrying vehicles. Unlike traditional aircraft, AAM vehicles operate within the urban boundary layer, where large structures, such as buildings, interrupt the flow. This study examines the response of a package delivery drone, a general aviation aircraft, and a passenger-carrying urban air mobility aircraft through an urban wind field generated using Large Eddy Simulations (LES). Since it is burdensome to simulate flight dynamics in real-time using the full-order solution, reduced-order wind models are created. Comparing trajectories for each aircraft platform using full-order or reduced-order solutions reveals little difference; reduced-order wind representations appear sufficient to replicate trajectories as long as the spatiotemporal wind field is represented. However, examining control usage statistics and time histories creates a stark difference between the wind fields, especially for the lower wing-loading package delivery drone where control saturation was encountered. The control saturation occurrences were inconsistent across the full-order and reduced-order winds, advising caution when using reduced-order models for lightly wing-loaded aircraft. The results presented demonstrate the effectiveness of using a simulation environment to evaluate reduced-order models by directly comparing their trajectories and control activity metrics with the full-order model. This evaluation provides designers valuable insights for making informed decisions for disturbance rejection systems. Additionally, the results indicate that using Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) solutions to represent urban wind fields is inappropriate. It was observed that the mean wind field trajectories fall outside the 95% confidence intervals, a finding consistent with the authors’ previous research.

Investigation of various winglets using computational fluid dynamics for subsonic aircraft

Abstract The tiny, upturned, or downturned extensions at the tips of an aircraft’s wings are designated as winglets. By minimizing drag and improving fuel efficiency, they are introduced to increase the aircraft’s aerodynamic efficiency. Winglets are now a day’s employed in the commercial aircraft to minimise the induced effect caused by wing tip vortices produced at low subsonic speeds. In this article, we have selected NACA 2412, from which we have created a swept back wing with a 20-degree sweep angle that has eight distinct winglet configurations. SolidWorks 2023 is used for design work, and ANSYS 19.2 is used for analysis. The analysis is carried out by changing the angle of attack (AOA) from -6 degrees to 20 degrees with an incremental step of 2 degrees. Here, we have used the k-epsilon turbulence model to capture the turbulence and 100 m/s velocity is maintained throughout the analysis. From this analysis, a potential solution of aerodynamic co-efficient (lift, drag, cl, cd and cl/cd) are being observed. Blended winglet with cant angle 35 degrees produces high lift-to-drag ratio compared with another winglet configuration. The insights gained from the study are plotted in various graphs such as cl vs alpha, cd v/s alpha and cl/cd v/s alpha and the CFD results show a considerable improvement in aircraft’s performance after using winglets. Aluminium alloy’s high strength to weight ratio, robust corrosion resistance, enhanced conductivity, and outstanding ductility qualities will make it easier for us to manufacture winglets in the future.

Fuzzy approximation-based reparametrization and adaptive control design of nonlinear aircraft dynamics

This paper conducts a new study on fuzzy approximation-based reparametrization and adaptive control design of non-canonical nonlinear aircraft dynamics, with particular focus on emphasizing the expansion of linearization-based adaptive flight control designs from local to semi-global scopes. The linearization-based adaptive control method has been employed for managing non-canonical nonlinear aircraft systems, owing to its capability in handling the complexity of aircraft system dynamics. To enhance the operational range of the linearization-based approach, this paper focuses on the aircraft longitudinal dynamic model in general non-canonical forms. A semi-global linearization-based adaptive control method is developed for this kind of system. Firstly, a new reparametrization is devised, leveraging local linearized models and a concept of relative degree. Subsequently, adaptive controllers are designed to guarantee stable and asymptotic output tracking for aircraft systems with various relative degrees. The efficiency of the newly developed adaptive control approach is validated through simulation outcomes.

New Type-2-Fuzzy-Logic-Based Control System for the Cessna Citation X

This paper presents a new control law based on type-2 fuzzy logic system (T2FLS) for the Cessna Citation X aircraft during cruise. This methodology combines three control systems: a T2FLS, a sliding mode control (SMC) system, and an adaptive control system. Differing from conventional controllers, this control system can deal with uncertainties and aircraft dynamics variations using the T2FLS approximator. The approximated functions were updated during the simulation iterations using adaptation laws derived from the Lyapunov theorem. The adaptability characteristic of this controller allows updating the approximated functions while the other design parameters remain unchanged. This fact simplifies the controller design process and eliminates the need to use a group of conventional controllers with different gains to control the aircraft in various flight conditions. In addition, the sliding mode control system helps to guarantee the aircraft’s stability and robustness, along with two other methodologies in the presence and absence of turbulence. The performance of this control methodology was validated with a nonlinear simulation platform developed for the Cessna Citation X business aircraft using accurate flight data derived from a Level D flight simulator at the Research Laboratory in Active Controls, Avionics and AeroServoElasticity (LARCASE).

The Dynamic Stability and Performance Implications of Piston-to-Turboprop Engine Modernization of a Light Aircraft for General Aviation

ABSTRACT This paper explores the influence of engine modernization on the dynamic stability and performance of a general aviation aircraft. Utilizing an integral mathematical model, the study conducts a comparative analysis of the I-23 Manager piston-engine aircraft and its modified I-31T turboprop version, examining changes in aircraft dynamics depending on the power plant type. The modernization necessitated a redesign of the nose section of the fuselage, resulting in alterations to the external shape and flight properties of the aircraft. The research evaluates various dynamic stability parameters, including phugoid, short period, Dutch roll, roll, and spiral modes, under different flight conditions. Results indicate minimal changes in aerodynamic characteristics due to the engine type, yet significant improvements are observed in efficiency, noise reduction, and operational costs. The impact of the propulsion unit on the dynamic stability of the light aircraft was assessed as insignificant, suggesting that the strategy of modernizing an existing piston-driven aircraft by switching to a turboprop drive is indeed promising. With appropriate initial design assumptions, a modern turbine aircraft with strong flight qualities can be efficiently modernized in this way, without compromising the good flying properties of the existing plane. The outcomes are validated against flight tests, reinforcing the viability of integrating more sustainable and efficient propulsion systems into light aircraft. This study may therefore inform future design and regulatory decisions, providing a perspective on the implications of engine upgrades in the general aviation sector.

Wind Shear Response of Aircraft with C* and C*U Controller during Approach

This study investigates the impact of wind shear on the flight dynamics of commercial aircraft where C* and C*U control laws are employed during the approach phase. Given the high incidence of flight accidents during takeoff and landing attributed to wind shear, this research aims to enhance aviation safety by analyzing control law behavior under varying wind shear conditions. A nonlinear flight simulation model was developed, utilizing aerodynamic and engine data from a B737, to explore the aircraft’s response to different wind shear intensities. The simulation analysis was used to compare the response of the aircraft with C* and C*U controllers, respectively, under different wind shear, and to evaluate the effectiveness of its stability enhancement in wind shear. It was found that in most cases, the controller can achieve a good stabilization effect, but in some cases of wind fields, the aircraft suffered more significant oscillation.

A moment-based Kalman filtering approach for estimation in ensemble systems.

A persistent challenge in tasks involving large-scale dynamical systems, such as state estimation and error reduction, revolves around processing the collected measurements. Frequently, these data suffer from the curse of dimensionality, leading to increased computational demands in data processing methodologies. Recent scholarly investigations have underscored the utility of delineating collective states and dynamics via moment-based representations. These representations serve as a form of sufficient statistics for encapsulating collective characteristics, while simultaneously permitting the retrieval of individual data points. In this paper, we reshape the Kalman filter methodology, aiming its application in the moment domain of an ensemble system and developing the basis for moment ensemble noise filtering. The moment system is defined with respect to the normalized Legendre polynomials, and it is shown that its orthogonal basis structure introduces unique benefits for the application of Kalman filter for both i.i.d. and universal Gaussian disturbances. The proposed method thrives from the reduction in problem dimension, which is unbounded within the state-space representation, and can achieve significantly smaller values when converted to the truncated moment-space. Furthermore, the robustness of moment data toward outliers and localized inaccuracies is an additional positive aspect of this approach. The methodology is applied for an ensemble of harmonic oscillators and units following aircraft dynamics, with results showcasing a reduction in both cumulative absolute error and covariance with reduced calculation cost due to the realization of operations within the moment framework conceived.

Analyzing the Impact of Wing Flexural Axis Position on the Dynamics of a Very Flexible Airplane Using Strain-based Formulation

New technologies and the needs of specific missions have allowed and stimulated the development of airplanes with great structural flexibility. In these vehicles, there is a significant coupling between aeroelastic phenomena and flight dynamics. This has been a topic of research in recent years. Different methodologies have been studied to model the complete dynamics of flexible aircraft. One of these is the NFNS_s methodology (Non linear flight dynamics, non linear structural dynamics, strain based formulation). This article presents the use of this methodology in the analysis of the aeroelastic response and flight dynamics of a transport category aircraft with high structural flexibility. The effects of the wing elastic axis and the flexural axis positions were analyzed. Trimming, calculus of eigenvalues and time-marching simulations were carried out and the results were analyzed in detail. Some results were compared with those published in the literature. Similar trends were observed. This served as a qualitative validation of the methodology used. Some limitations of the study are described. The contributions of this work lie in the use of the NFNS_s methodology to analyze the effects of the elastic and flexural axis positions. In addition, the results of time marching simulations of the airplane modeled and the analysis carried out in great detail are other important novelty.

Design of Improved Ground Closed-loop Test System Based on Variable-stability Flight Control Computer

With the development of civil aviation, ground simulation test has gradually become a key link in the transformation of basic theory to engineering application. By forming a closed-loop link between the variable stability aircraft (VSA) dynamics model and the aircraft rudder surface, sensors, etc., the variable-stability ground closed-loop test system can simulate the aircraft flight state and response characteristics in the ground environment. However, the current ground test system suffers from a wide range of signals, complex signal simulation methods, and low system integration. In this study, an improved modular ground closed-loop test system for VSA is designed from three aspects: signal acquisition and simulation of airborne equipment, parameter monitoring and data processing, and fault simulation subsystem, which improves its compatibility and integrates with the software hardware of the variable-stability flight control computer and other air-borne equipment. After the system interconnection test, the generalized ground closed-loop test system designed in this study can replace the original system more efficiently, and its signal connection has inheritability, and provides a design method reference for other related researches of the variable-stability flight control computer.

Improving flight performance of UAVs by ice shape modulation

Aircraft icing poses a great threat to flight safety. In response to the characteristics of high-power consumption, large volume, and heavy weight of traditional anti-/de-icing technologies, the concept of ice shape modulation is proposed, which is called ice tolerant flight. Firstly, the flight performance of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) was compared in three states: no ice, full ice, and modulated ice through flight tests. It was found that ice shape modulation has a significant improvement effect on the aerodynamic performance of aircraft under icing conditions. Under the three modulated ice shape conditions in this experiment, the lift coefficient of the UAV under different ice shape modulation conditions increased by 18%–33%, and the stalling angle was delayed by 3°-5°. Subsequently, the pressure distribution, streamlines in the flow field, and detached vortex distribution of the UAV model in these three states were obtained through numerical simulation, to study the mechanism of ice shape modulation on the aerodynamic performance of aircraft. The simulation found that the reason for the improvement of the wings effect after ice shape modulation is that the modulated area forms a leading-edge protrusion structure similar to a vortex generator. This structure prolongs the mixed flow region on the wings surface and reduces the trend of flow separation, which plays a role in increasing lift and reducing drag for UAVs under icing conditions. Finally, a reverse reachable set that can be used for unexpected state recovery is used as the definition of flight safety boundaries, and an aircraft dynamics model is established to obtain flight safety boundaries for different states. Research has found that the flight safety boundary of the UAV in a no ice state is greater than that in a modulated ice state, and the safety boundary in a modulated ice state is greater than that in a full ice state. Compared with the full ice state, the flight safety boundary after modulation has expanded by 27.0%. The scheme of ice shape modulation can provide a basis for the flight safety of aircraft under icing conditions.

Theoretical modeling and vibration analysis of composite laminated wing-box structures of hydrogen-electric aircraft under hygrothermal environment

For the sake of achieving the goal of ultra-low or even zero carbon emissions during flight, hydrogen-electric aircraft has been receiving increasing emphasis. Nevertheless, the hydrogen-electric aircraft owns an all-composite fuselage configuration and is subjected hygrothermal environment, which have a significant effect on the aircraft dynamics, especially for wing structure. In this study, an improved orthogonal polynomial solution based on the Rayleigh-Ritz method is developed for the dynamic analysis of composite laminated wing-box structures (CLWBSs) of hydrogen-electric aircraft with humid and hot environment and elastic boundary. In this solution approach, the potential energy, kinetic energy, elastic potential energy and hygrothermal potential energy of CLWBSs are derived from the framework of Kirchhoff thin plate hypothesis. A set of artificial springs is imported to the free edges of CLWBSs to simulate the elastic boundary and connection between two plates. The convergence, accuracy and computational efficiency of the proposed formulation are validated by experiment and finite element analysis. The effect of the coupling parameters and the elastic boundaries due to flexible composite fuselage in hygrothermal environment created by the hydrogen fuel cells are systematically investigated which have been confirmed by theoretical research, finite element analysis and experiment. The related findings indicate that the present approach provided an effective formulation for the vibration analysis and optimization of flexible composite wing-box structures. It can be applied in the field of aerospace and navigation industry at the same time.

Total Energy-Based Control Design and Optimization for Lift-Plus-Cruise Aircraft

This paper presents a methodology for optimizing a Total Energy–based control system architecture for a lift-plus-cruise vertical takeoff and landing urban air mobility concept. The Total Energy Control System algorithm, which was originally developed for fixed-wing applications, is extended to also be applicable to hovering and transitioning flight. Control system parameters are optimized using a genetic algorithm optimization scheme, subject to constraints on dynamic stability and control response characteristics. Control system optimization and flight simulations are performed using the Modular Aircraft Dynamics and Control Algorithm Simulation Platform. Results presented include simulations of the optimized flight control system operation for maneuvering scenarios representative of hover, transition, and forward flight conditions as well as during transitions between vertical and forward flight modes. The presented results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed control system architecture and the demonstrated optimization methodology.

Flight dynamics of aircraft incorporating the semi-aeroelastic hinge

Aircraft like the Boeing 777-X use on-ground folding wingtips to meet the airport gate size restriction while increasing the aspect ratio during flight to reduce induced drag. A recent concept of aircraft design is to utilise in-flight floating wingtips as a means of load alleviation, which is known as semi-aeroelastic hinge (SAH). This device allows wingtips to be released during manoeuvre and severe gusts to alleviate wing loads, while locking the wingtips during cruise to maintain an optimum aerodynamic shape. This paper develops a flight mechanics model incorporating flexible wings to study the influence of the SAH device on multiple aspects of aircraft flight dynamics. The dynamic responses of the aircraft to gusts and control surface inputs are computed and compared for various hinge and wingtip configurations and release times. It was found that the gust load measured from the wing with free hinge configuration was approximately 40% lower compared to that of the fixed hinge case. It is also shown that when the SAH is released, it can significantly reduce an aircraft's roll damping and the frequency of the short-period mode, leading to higher roll and pitch rates. Furthermore, it shows that the transient responses following the wingtip release will exacerbate the responses induced by gusts, and greater load alleviation can be achieved by manipulating the hinge release time for each gust length. Finally, a step input of the elevator during the hinge release was found to be beneficial for enhancing the gust load alleviation.

Development and Implementation of Physics-Informed Neural ODE for Dynamics Modeling of a Fixed-Wing Aircraft Under Icing/Fault

Accurate dynamics modeling is crucial for the safety and control of fixed-wing aircraft under perturbation (e.g. icing/fault). In this work, we propose a physics-informed Neural Ordinary Differential Equation (PI-NODE)-based scheme for aircraft dynamics modeling under icing/fault. First, icing accumulation and control surface faults are considered and injected into the nominal (clean) aircraft dynamics model. Second, the physics knowledge of aircraft dynamics modeling is divided into kinematics and kinetics. The former is universally applicable and borrows directly from the nominal aircraft. The latter kinetics knowledge, which hinges on external forces and moments, is inaccurate and challenging under icing/fault. To address this issue, we employ Neural ODE to compensate for the residual between the aircraft dynamics under icing/fault and the nominal (clean) condition, resulting in a naturally continuous-time modeling approach. In experiments, we benchmark the proposed PI-NODE against three baseline methods in a dedicated flight scenario. Comparative studies validate the higher accuracy and improve the generalization ability of the proposed PI-NODE for aircraft dynamics modeling under icing/fault.

A control architecture for fixed-wing aircraft based on the convolutional neural networks

This paper develops a nonlinear architecture to control different fixed-wing aircraft. This architecture has inner and outer loops. The inner loops, designed based on the convolutional neural networks, control the internal dynamics of the aircraft, and the outer loops, which use linear controllers, are designed to control the kinematic states, which are the same for all aircraft. So, the inner loops are designed to have adaptation mechanisms based on the convolutional neural networks to control the internal dynamics of different aircraft. The networks are trained offline based on a generated database to avoid time-consuming online procedures. The database is created by simulating simple linear training models. Then, the input-output data of these training models are preprocessed and mapped to an appropriate form to be fed to convolutional neural networks. After that, an appropriate network structure is selected, and the networks are trained based on the mapped database. These trained networks, along with linear controllers in a cascade form, are applied to control nonlinear simulations of 15 different fixed-wing aircraft. Then, the performance of the represented controller is compared to two adaptive controllers. The promising results show that the controller can sufficiently be utilized in controlling fixed-wing aircraft, even in slow or sudden changes in aircraft dynamics.

Trim Analysis and Structured H-Infinity Control of Wing-Docked Multibody Aircraft

A wing-docked multibody aircraft is a novel configuration being explored as a balanced solution between efficiency and structural resilience for very long-endurance aviation. The presence of wingtip hinges complicates the dynamics and control of this class of aircraft but has thus far only been analyzed in specific cases. In this work, we make a comprehensive exploration of parameter space of the multibody trim problem and stability and demonstrate the treatment of the control problem using the robust H∞ synthesis technique. We propose a simplified simulation approach to the static trim analysis and demonstrate key observations relating to the configurations and open-loop dynamic stability of multibody aircraft in general. An interpolated parameter-scheduling model using the hinge angle as a scheduling parameter is established, based on which the structured multimodel H∞ synthesis method is employed to synthesize the robust flight controllers. Simulation results show that the designed controllers are capable of configuration control within the range of possible trim solutions and have also achieved good control effectiveness in path following and disturbance rejection. The proposed trim analysis and control techniques serve to provide a systematic benchmark study on wing-docked multibody aircraft dynamics, which is valuable to the development of this research area.

A probabilistic model based on the peak-over-threshold approach for risk assessment of airport controllers' performance

Airport tower control plays an instrumental role in ensuring airport safety. However, obtaining objective, quantitative safety evaluations is challenging due to the unavailability of pertinent human operation data. This study introduces a probabilistic model that combines aircraft dynamics and the peak-over-threshold (POT) approach to assess the safety performance of airport controllers. We applied the POT approach to model reaction times extracted from a radiotelephony dataset via a voice event detection algorithm. The model couples the risks of tower control and aircraft operation to analyze the influence of human factors. Using data from radiotelephony communications and the Base of Aircraft Data (BADA) database, we compared risk levels across scenarios. Our findings revealed heightened airport control risks under low demand (0.374) compared to typical conditions (0.197). Furthermore, the risks associated with coupling under low demand exceeded those under typical demand, with the final approach stage presenting the highest risk (4.929×10−7). Our model underscores the significance of human factors and the implications of mental disconnects between pilots and controllers for safety risks. Collectively, these consistent findings affirm the reliability of our probabilistic model as an evaluative tool for evaluating the safety performance of airport tower controllers. The results also illuminate the path toward quantitative real-time safety evaluations for airport controllers within the industry. We recommend that airport regulators focus on the performance of airport controllers, particularly during the final approach stage.