Expatriate Adjustment Research Articles

"Affective networks, informal ties, and the limits of expatriate effectiveness"

Expatriate effectiveness research has so far rarely taken into account the influence of social networks on expatriate performance and adjustment. Likewise, antecedents of social networks remain poorly understood. We fill this research gap by exploring the situation of expatriates in South Korea. Based on expert interview data, we have discovered seven antecedents critical to expatriate effectiveness. Most antecedents hinder expatriate effectiveness due to the expatriates’ inability to become a part of so-called Yongo networks, a distinctive type of social tie in South Korea that is to a great extent determined by birth. As a consequence, it is in particular expatriates’ relational performance and interaction adjustment that is negatively influenced by Yongo. Based on the South Korean case, this study advises future research to more deeply study the nature and characteristics of the local social context, in particular affective ties, and extend research on expatriate effectiveness in this important dimensi...

The Influence of Family Systems on Expatriate Performance and Adjustment in Dangerous Locations

Multinational enterprises (MNEs) increasingly expand their operations to emerging markets of the developing world. Employees being sent on expatriate assignments to lesser developed countries often...

General Adjustment Influence Factor of Malaysian Construction Expatriates Executives Abroad

The success of Malaysian construction companies creates an opportunity to explore abroad. Past studies have shown that the difficulty of expatriates in adjusting to a new environment is the main aspect that leads to failure of assignments. The success in implementing an overseas assignment does not solely depend on an expatriate’s technical expertise. The adjustment issues such as the interaction with the host nationals, and adaptability to the host country’s culture also exert influence on the assignment. The research was conducted to identify the influence of executive expatriate general adjustment on assignment in host countries. The objective of the study was to identify adjustment influence factors relating to general adjustment abroad. Questionnaires were sent to Malaysian expatriate executives. Sixty four Malaysian expatriate executives from Malaysian construction companies overseas were involved in this study. The findings show interaction, social and living environment influences their adjustment during expatriation. Pre-departure training preparation aspects for expatriates is a good step before their departure to host countries.

Antecedent factors for success in international assignments: the case of expatriates in Peru

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the relative most important antecedent factors related to success in international assignment (IA) in specific context such as Peru. It reviews the full range of individual, organizational and contextual factors associated with success in IA as well as discusses the importance of context in expatriate research. Combined with limited interviews, synthesis is offered and the most relevant determinant factors are identified. Design/methodology/approach – This is a qualitative approach based on semi-structured interviews with 45 participants who currently hold IA positions or have broad experience in overseas positions. The interviews were conducted in the English and Spanish languages. A priori coding system classification technique based on a content analysis methodology was administrated for the purpose of analyzing and codifying the interviews. Findings – The findings reveal that a combination of individual, organizational and contextual antecedent factors are relevant for explaining success in IA. However, only nine of the 32 factors were found to be the most determinant to success. In particular, cross-cultural competencies, spouse adjustment, motivational issues, time on assignment, emotional competencies, previous international experience, language fluency and social relational skills, as well as contextual cultural differences and organizational recruitment and selection practices, were found to be the most associated to success in IA. The relative importance of the antecedents are discussed related to the context. Research limitations/implications – Because of the nature of qualitative design, a single factor may affect the interpretation and generalization of the findings. In addition, the ample and broad conceptualizations and definitions of the antecedent factors examined from different viewpoints may cause theoretical overlapping and cross-over definition biases, which may result in misleading findings. Therefore, the authors encourage future research to continue examining the full range of antecedent factors employing different methodological approaches by integrating context in a more systematic manner. Practical implications – The paper reviews the implications for IA selection design and process implementation, cross-cultural training and development. Originality/value – To begin with, this paper fills a need to study the antecedents of IA success and determine their relevance. In particular, and to the best of the knowledge, this is one of the few studies that include multi-level perspective: individual, organizational and contextual factors. This comprehensive approach aids in better understanding of the role and relevance of the respective antecedent factors that leads to success in IA with an aim to integrate context in the equation. Second, the sample consists of expatriates in particularly in Peru which gives information about adjustment of expatriates in Peru.

Cross-cultural adjustment and fundamental interpersonal relations orientation behaviour (FIRO-B)

Purpose – Expatriate workforces are growing as a result of globalisation and the considerable cost associated with expatriation is a strong incentive to identify which employees are most likely to adjust to the host nation. One area relevant to cross-cultural adjustment is interpersonal needs. The theory of fundamental interpersonal relations orientation as measured by the fundamental interpersonal relations orientation-behaviour (FIRO-B) may offer insights as to the relationship between interpersonal needs and cross-cultural adjustment. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – In total, 180 paper and pencil measures of the FIRO-B and expatriate adjustment scales (general, work, and interaction) were distributed via informed international associates and convenience and snowball sampling. In total, 112 expatriates from the UK (44 percent), South Africa (22 percent), India (20 percent), and other nations (14 percent) returned completed questionnaires. Findings – Expatriates with higher levels of wanted affection were higher on all subscales of cross-cultural adjustment. Those who wanted and expressed the need for inclusion were significantly higher in interaction adjustment while those who expressed and wanted control were less adjusted to work. Research limitations/implications – The cross-sectional design limits the extent to which these findings can be interpreted as causal and the small sample size may limit the generalisability of the findings and common method via self-report may also inflate inter-relationship. However, the underlying theoretical premise would strongly support the hypothesised directional relationships in the normal population. A number of factors beyond the scope of this study may play a fundamental role including cultural similarity. Practical implications – Whilst not predictive, and acknowledging that environmental factors may vary, these results give an indication that interpersonal needs are related to successful adjustment in expatriates. As such these findings could be used to help inform the recruitment and training of expatriates in areas of interpersonal interaction taking into consideration intrapersonal needs. Originality/value – No study to date has explored the inter-relationship between the interpersonal needs and expatriate adjustment. This is the first paper to do so and identify that there is a significant association between expatriate’s motives for interaction and their level of cross-cultural adjustment.

An Exploratory Research on the Effect of Demographic Variables on Expatriate Tenure in India with Specific Reference to Bangalore

Internationalization of business through various modes of entry like off shoring, joint ventures, strategic alliances etc has increased the flow of human resources across the borders. There is definite requirement for globally competent work force and the MNC’s have realized that cost of expatriate assignment largely depends on expatriate adjustment which is responsible for successful completion of expatriate assignments. An understanding on expat tenure in India with respect to demographic factors will help the multinational companies from USA, UK and China to reduce the direct and indirect cost of failure of expatriate assignment. The issues and challenges faced by the expatriates in India are discussed in the research. The research results are intended to help the managers of parent country choose the right candidates for expatriate assignments in India. The research aims to help organizations take proactive measures by training the expats to improve their ability to adjust to the new work environment well in advance.

Adjustment in Western European overseas assignments

Purpose – The purpose of this study is to assess differences between the adjustment of expatriates in Germany and France. Most research has focused on the individual in relation to expatriate adjustment. The general conditions of the host country, however, could represent an important contextual factor that needs to be explored further. Design/methodology/approach – Based on an empirical study of 130 expatriate managers on foreign assignments in France (61) and Germany (69), the authors take a comparative perspective and examine differences for sociocultural and psychological adjustment as well as time to proficiency in both countries. Findings – The authors found that expatriates assigned to France show higher degrees of work adjustment and general adjustment than those in Germany. This was unexpected as Germany is generally described as a more transparent, open and welcoming country. Results may thus challenge stereotypical conceptions of national differences and indicate that globalization processes ar...

Work- and family-role adjustment of different types of global professionals: Scale development and validation

Although the original model of expatriate adjustment proposed by Black and colleagues has received substantial empirical support, it has come under increased academic scrutiny, due to both the conceptual overlap among its dimensions and its limited applicability for global professionals who interact with individuals from diverse cultures. Drawing on role theory, we conceptualize and develop a multidimensional scale of the work- and family-role adjustment of global professionals. We assess this scale through five interlocking studies using data from a total of 1231 corporate and self-initiated expatriates, international business travelers, and global domestics. After confirming the scale’s dimensionality, we provide evidence for convergent, discriminant, nomological, and predictive validity. We also demonstrate differences in levels of adjustment and in relationships between work and family demands and resources and their respective forms of adjustment across various types of global professionals. We contribute to international business research, and the organizational behavior and work–family literatures, by offering a theoretically based scale that assesses adjustment to both work and family roles for a wide range of global employees. Our scale further lends itself as a diagnostic tool during the selection, training, and support of global professionals and their families.

Emotional Labor: An Examination of Faculty in Two Countries

Although there have been several studies on expatriate adjustment, acculturation and cultural adaptation to a foreign culture in service-driven occupations, there is a dearth of research in many areas. There have been few studies that have looked at jobs that have high emotional labor in the academic field in a cross-cultural context. This study attempts to fill this gap by examining a high emotional labor occupation - the teaching profession, by looking at two different samples of teaching faculty, in two different countries. Two different groups of faculty from the US one teaching in the US, and one teaching as expatriate faculty in China were compared. Findings revealed significant differences in perceptions of emotional labor, stressors and strains. The implications of these findings are discussed.

The impact of stressors during international assignments

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to examine relationships between cross-cultural adjustment and stress of expatriate employees with families in a multinational corporation and identify common stressors reported during international transitions.Design/methodology/approach– This study utilized both quantitative and qualitative methods through an online survey based tool. The CernySmith Assessment captured the statistical measures of objective adjustment scales along with written in, subjective stressor responses from a sample of expatriates.Findings– Overall subjective stress level was negatively correlated with all five objective adjustment domains (organizational, cultural, relational, behavioral, and personal). Seven stressor categories (cultural, occupational, relational, historical, crisis, spiritual, physical) demonstrated statistically significant negative relationships with overall adjustment. Regression analysis indicated expatriate adjustment was predicted by spiritual, occupational, and support stressors. Write-in stressor responses provided specific expressions of individual stress challenges, strains, and hassles that support predicted relations according to the Family Adaptation and Adjustment Response model.Research limitations/implications– This study provides a snapshot of objective adjustment interacting with subjective stress for expatriate employees from a single international organization during a specific time period.Originality/value– These findings provide insights to organizations and human resource development professionals as well as to expatriates and their families on how stress impacts expatriate adjustment. It also highlights the need for support mechanisms to ease transitions and reduce stressors.

Expatriate leadership competencies and performance: a qualitative study

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to investigate leadership competencies of expatriate managers working within the UAE and identify if these competencies are unique from those needed in their home country. Additionally, the paper aims to identify how new competencies expatriate leaders have developed while in their current position and how this enhances their ability to better manage staff in the UAE. Leadership competencies are skills and behaviors that contribute to enhanced performance. While some leadership competencies are essential to all firms, some distinctive leadership attributes may be particularly relevant to organizations possessing a large expatriate community.Design/methodology/approach– Personal interviews and stratified sampling were used to examine the qualities and skills relating to expatriate managers’ success in leading UAE organizations. The research design did not differentiate between the origins and ethnicities of the leaders. The leaders, whether American, European, Indo-Pakistani or Asian, were treated as one entity.Findings– Factors such as communication ability, team building qualities and ability to handle local nationals were found to have a significant effect on expatriate adjustment and success in managing UAE organizations.Practical implications– By investigating specific competencies and skills that expatriate managers need to lead organizations in the UAE and the broader Gulf region, the study informs organizations on how they can better identify and develop leadership skills that lead to enhanced performance.Originality/value– The study focuses on leadership competencies within the expatriate community of the UAE.

Context matters: Acculturation and work-related outcomes of self-initiated expatriates employed by foreign vs. local organizations

Research on various outcomes of foreign assignments has seldom involved the specific organizational context. This study examines the acculturation of self-initiated expatriates in local and foreign-owned organizations. Based on the choice-within-constraints framework in new institutional theory, we propose that self-initiated expatriate academics in local organizations are better adjusted to general life and interaction with host country nationals than their counterparts in foreign-owned organizations. We also suggest that, due to limited available human cognitive capacity, the adjustment of expatriate academics with regard to general life and interaction in the two types of organizations has different consequences for work-related outcomes. Specifically, we hypothesize that for expatriates in foreign organizations, general adjustment is positively associated with work-related outcomes while, for expatriates in local organizations, interaction adjustment is instead positively associated with their work-related outcomes. Based on 210 self-initiated expatriate academics in China and Taiwan, our findings generally provide support for these hypothesized relationships. By demonstrating the role of organization type in expatriate adjustment we contribute to the use of social learning theory in this area) arguing that acculturation should not be perceived to occur in a vacuum. Rather the adjustment patterns of expatriates are affected by the social and institutional context.

The elephant in the room: the role of time in expatriate adjustment

This conceptual article explores the role of temporal dynamics in the study of expatriate adjustment. We introduce the dimensions and the domains of adjustment and discuss the dynamics between them, as well as the dynamics between antecedents, state and consequences of adjustment. Issues such as the role of time lags, duration and rate of change as well as reciprocal causation are discussed. We address the consequences of these issues for theory building in the area of expatriate adjustment and the implications for methodological choices. We conclude with specific recommendations for the future research of expatriate adjustment that recognise the nature of adjustment as a process evolving over time and that we hope will enhance the rigour and relevance of this area of research.

International adjustment of female vs male business expatriates. A replication study in Switzerland

Purpose– Reasons for women’s underrepresentation in international assignments include stereotypical assumptions within organizations about their ability to adjust abroad and more broadly a lack of trust from the corporate headquarters. Female expatriates’ adjustment may strongly vary depending on the host country and on host-country nationals’ attitudes toward them. Yet up until today, very few studies have examined female expatriate adjustment in a single and non-Asian host country. The purpose of this paper is to address this gap by comparing the cross-cultural adjustment of male and female expatriates in Switzerland.Design/methodology/approach– This study replicates Selmer and Leung’s (2003a) study design in order to compare adjustment of male and female expatriates working in multinational companies in the French-speaking part of Switzerland. Based on 152 valid questionnaires collected, the authors performed a multivariate analysis of covariance and further analyses of covariance to compare male and female expatriate adjustment.Findings– The authors find that female expatriates have significantly higher interaction and work adjustment levels than their male counterparts, while no significant differences between men and women were observed in terms of general adjustment. These findings in a European context are consistent with those of Selmer and Leung in an Asian context.Originality/value– Very few studies to date have examined the adjustment of female expatriates in a western host-country context, despite the fact that host-country cultural norms might strongly influence women’s experiences. The research brings new empirical evidence about cross-cultural adjustment of female and male expatriates in a western location. Contrary to persistent stereotypical assumptions, results emphasize again that women are able to adjust better or at least as well as their male counterparts.

Burden or support? The influence of partner nationality on expatriate cross-cultural adjustment

Purpose– The family and specifically, the partners of expatriates are unfortunately the major cause of expatriate maladjustment. Drawing from and extending the concept of relational demography, the purpose of this paper is to examine the influence of the nationality of expatriates’ partners, conceptualized as host, home or third country nationality, on expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment.Design/methodology/approach– Survey data from 299 expatriate academics in China, Japan and South Korea were analysed. The authors used confirmatory factor analyses to validate the scales and ANCOVA to test the hypotheses. To further understand the interactions effects the authors conducted simple slopes analysis.Findings– Results show that differences in expatriate academics’ cross-cultural adjustment are notper sebased on the different nationality of their partners, but are mainly due to an interaction effect of partner nationality and length of stay in host country. Expatriates with host country national partners perceived the highest increase in cross-cultural adjustment over time, followed by those with third country national partners, whereas those with home country partners did not experience any increase in cross-cultural adjustment.Research limitations/implications– The study was based on a cross-sectional survey of expatriate academics in Asia. Thus, longitudinal, multisource data from various contexts would increase validity and generalizability of findings. Despite these limitations, the study provided new and intriguing findings. The theory and empirical evidence underscore the importance of expatriate partner nationality and thereby, relational demography between expatriate partners and expatriates.Practical implications– The research aims to emphasize the important role that expatriate partners can play concerning the success of expatriate cross-cultural adjustment. Greater attention should be paid to the adjustment processes of expatriates and their partners to facilitate expatriate cross-cultural adjustment.Originality/value– The authors are among the first to study the influence of nationality, conceptualized as host, home country or third country nationality, of expatriates’ partners on expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment by applying the concept of relational demography. Moreover, the authors look at the role that time in the host country has on the partner’s influence on expatriate adjustment.

Expatriate adjustment in the digital age: The co-creation of online social support resources through blogging

Support provided through social contacts in the host environment has long been recognized as critical for expatriate adjustment. Internet technologies are changing the way individuals form and interact with social contacts and access social support. These technologies have the potential to offer expatriates new sources and means for accessing social support. We investigated the role of blogging technology in expatriates’ adjustment to foreign environments through a qualitative analysis of a set of blogs written by foreign individuals living in Canada between 2005 and 2012. We found that the blogging system, which is comprised of the blogging technology, bloggers, discussants, and co-created digital discourse, generated online adjustment support resources which were accessed by expatriates. Online adjustment support resources are social support resources, created and residing online, which may help expatriates deal with their experiences of uncertainty, ambiguity and anxiety and include information, interpretation schemas, and comfort.

Global relocation: an examination of the corporate influence on expatriate adjustment

This paper examines the important yet often overlooked corporate influence on expatriates' intercultural adjustment. Using four months of ethnographic data collected in China, we aim to understand how expatriates' transnational corporation employers and their outsourcing global relocation agencies work together to manage and influence expatriates' adjustment process. Our findings reveal the different impact organizational support can have on expatriate general and interaction adjustment, the mediating effect of organizational management of expatriate uncertainty and anxiety on adjustment outcome, and the relevance of organizational concern for efficiency. These findings suggest that the success of expatriate relocation programs hinges on their ability to help expatriates manage uncertainty and anxiety in ways that both provide them with the comfort of home and offer rich and authentic cultural experiences.

Diplomats’ Immunity to Foreignness: Socialization and Work in Expatriate Adjustment

This paper studies expatriate adjustment of diplomats as a polar case, addressing non-MNE expatriates from an emerging country with a three-stage, multi-method research design. We focus on how professional socialization, work environment, and pre-departure preparation relate to expatriate adjustment. Based on our study, we propose a model of expatriate adjustment and socialization to contribute extant approaches to expatriation. In conclusion, we consider applicability of our model to various professional and organizational settings and discuss limitations of our study.

Cross-cultural adjustment of female self-initiated expatriates: a longitudinal diary study

This study examines the motives for deciding to work abroad and the trajectory of adjustment of young female self-initiated expatriates. Based on a longitudinal analysis of blogs (online diaries), we identify five themes associated with the expatriate adjustment process: motive, observation, downsides, recovery, and meaning. The study reveals that the trajectory of adjustment of this population seems to follow a U-curve, with culture shocks at around one month and three months in the host country, and a recovery period of up to six months. The analysis also reveals a second type of emotional shock during the first week of arrival, distinct from culture shock. Reflecting the profile of

Over the Hills and Far Away: Career Anchors and Cross-Cultural Adjustment of Expatriates

In this paper we identify dominant career anchors and examine the relationship between career anchors and cross-cultural adjustment among expatriates in a not-for-profit French organization. Based ...