Expatriate Adjustment Research Articles

Host country national's reactions to expatriate pay policies: making a case for a cultural alignment pay model

Limited evidence exists that explores the reactions of host country nationals (HCNs) to ethnocentric pay policies of multinational enterprises (MNEs). However, HCNs are important both for facilitating expatriate adjustment and also for increasing MNE's effectiveness in the host nation. Using a social identity theory perspective, I argue that ascriptive identities formed on the basis of cultural values are deeply entrenched on the cognitive make-up of HCNs. MNEs that downplay national cultural beliefs may heighten hostility between HCNs and expatriates. I propose a cultural alignment model as a significant step toward integrating HCN's perceptions and a way to reduce social schism between expatriates and HCNs. Several positive outcomes resulting from cultural alignment are also discussed.

International assignments: The role of social support and personal initiative

Abstract This study adapts components of Fay and Frese's nomological network of personal initiative (2001) and Caligiuri and Lazarova's model (2002) for the influence of social support on adjustment. Based thereon, a model for the relationship between personal initiative, social support and work adjustment was developed and tested. One-hundred twenty-seven expatriates answered an online questionnaire during and after their foreign sojourn. Results suggest that personal initiative of the expatriates and social support received from supervisors – but not from their co-workers – predicted job satisfaction, job stress and job performance of the expatriates. Social support and personal initiative have a strong relationship with successful work adjustment. Personal initiative moderates the relationship between social support from co-workers and job performance. There are practical implications for companies that send their staff on international assignments. Implications for the concept of personal initiative in expatriate adjustment research are discussed.

Perceiving Expatriate Coworkers as Foreigners Encourages Aid

We propose that social categorization can encourage particular forms of intergroup cooperation because it differentiates a group in need from a group that can give aid. Moreover, social categorization is most likely to occur when individuals perceive procedural justice (i.e., fair treatment) from authorities in a superordinate group that includes the individuals’ subgroup. Two field studies investigating relations between local and foreign coworkers tested not only this prediction, but also whether high social categorization and procedural justice would yield a dual identity, in which group members identify simultaneously with their social category and the superordinate group. Both studies supported our predictions: Local employees engaged a dual identity and offered knowledge to aid a foreign coworker’s adjustment more often when local-foreign categorization and procedural justice from organizational authorities were high than when these variables were low. These discoveries point to controllable mechanisms that enable intergroup cooperation, and our findings have important implications for intergroup aid, expatriate adjustment, immigration, and multiculturalism.

You're from where? The influence of distance factors on New Zealand expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment

This study empirically tests the influence of various distance factors on expatriate cross-cultural adjustment. Expatriate perceptions of home and host country differences, objective measures of distance and the accuracy of expatriate evaluations of host country distance were compared as predictors of expatriate adjustment difficulty in the host country. The results revealed that perceived distance, objective cultural distance and the expatriate's perceptual inaccuracy had a significant effect on expatriate adjustment difficulty for one's first assignment. However, on subsequent assignments all measures of distance were significant. Adjustment became more difficult as perceptual accuracy improved. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Personality And Expatriate Performance: The Mediating Role Of Expatriate Adjustment

<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0.5in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; mso-layout-grid-align: none;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; color: black; font-size: 10pt;" lang="EN-GB">This paper investigates the relationship between personality and job performance, and the mediating role of cross-cultural adjustment (CCA) in that relationship. Based on sample of 332 expatriates working in Malaysia, personality predicts job performance, and both the interaction and work adjustment mediates the relationship. The findings of this study contributes to the body of knowledge in the cross-cultural management field as well as practical implication to expatriating firms especially in the area of selection of international candidates.</span></p>

“Adjustment” of the independent expatriate – a case study of Doug

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore the idea of expatriate adjustment through naturally occurring data. Specifically, through an investigation of three e‐mails sent to the author by a friend, Doug, the paper explores the notion that adjustment is a fluid concept and that through qualitative research methods it is possible to appreciate the expatriate experience in the context of an expatriate's “whole life” of experiences. This is in contrast to positivist approaches to the study of adjustment which offer limited snapshots of adjustment at particular moments in time.Design/methodology/approachThe paper investigates three e‐mails sent by Doug to the author. The e‐mails constitute a form of naturally occurring data, and through forms of narrative analysis the e‐mails are able to be examined to throw light on the process of expatriate adjustment.FindingsThe paper highlights ways in which qualitative research methods generally, and specifically when used in relation to expatriates, enable a fuller understanding of the processes of “adjustment” that expatriates experience and its relationship to their life as a “work in progress”. This type of research approach and analysis complements the more positivist study of expatriates. In some aspects it supports research findings on adjustment, but it serves to humanize the independent expatriate and their experience.Research limitations/implicationsThe research is a case study of only a single subject. The paper suggests the potential for using naturally occurring data in the study of expatriates and independent expatriates in particular.Practical implicationsStories of the experiences of expatriation offer insightful and “real” access to the lived experience of the expatriate. In this sense, they can be much more powerful than other forms of cross‐cultural training.Originality/valueThe paper highlights the importance of naturally occurring data and the need to consider “whole lives” in the past and present, of research “participants”.

Expatriate adjustment: The role of justice and conflict in intimate relationships

Framing expatriation as family relocation, this research examines the influence of perceived justice and conflict on the psychological adjustment of 103 expatriate couples. Based on the actor–partner interdependence model, the proposed model simultaneously addresses effects of justice and conflict on own and partner's outcomes. Supporting the current model, and based on the self‐interest model, distributive justice influenced work‐related task conflict among expatriates and household‐related task conflict among expatriate spouses. Among expatriate spouses, and in line with the group‐value model, fairness perceptions regarding interpersonal treatment influenced both parties' personal conflict. Unanticipated, both parties' distributive justice also influenced personal conflict. Personal conflict negatively affected both parties' psychological adjustment and acted as a mediator in the relationship between distributive justice and psychological adjustment.

Expatriates social networks: the role of company size

This study is an extension as well as a test of Caligiuri and Lazarova's model (2002) for the influence of support provided by different network partners (supervisors, co-workers, friends, spouses) on received socio-emotional and instrumental support. We extended this model by examining this relationship in connection with company size. Ninety expatriates were questioned during their foreign assignment: 45 from small and medium-sized enterprises and 45 from large companies. Consistent with our hypothesis expatriates who received support from their co-workers during their foreign sojourn also received more instrumental support. In addition, the type of company moderated the relationship between the network partner friends and socio-emotional and instrumental support. Implications for expatriate adjustment research and practice are discussed.

The role of family considerations in an expatriate majority environment

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to add to knowledge on the environment of self‐initiated expatriates and the importance of family in determining expatriate retention. It seeks to explore the role of family in an environment vastly different to that of previous research, one where expatriates are outnumbering citizens four to one. Further, the paper aims to explore familial adjustment differences that emerge amongst the different demographic segments within this expatriate majority environment.Design/methodology/approachThe analysis is based on survey data obtained from 364 self‐initiated expatriates. Beyond a thorough demographic analysis providing additional background, data to test hypotheses were analyzed using SPSS and, where suitable, independent samples t‐test or one‐way ANOVA.FindingsEvidence was found of what can be described as an environment easing expatriate adjustment as well as questioning the impact of many of the problems previously identified in literature on expatriates. Findings show an environment where some of the stressors associated with living abroad have been mitigated and family has more or less become a motivation to stay rather than to leave. In addition, the demographic analysis of expatriate faculty adds to knowledge about the globalization of higher education.Practical implicationsDefinitions of what constitutes a hardship posting for expatriates may need to be revisited, taking into account national demographic characteristics. Current thinking on the expatriate family should also consider different settings where family may actually be a motivation to remain.Originality/valueThis paper provides a new perspective, as previous literature suggested family to be almost exclusively a reason for expatriate difficulties. Further, little focus has been made on countries where expatriates represent a large share or the majority of the population such as in several of the Arabian Gulf countries.

SEEKING HELP FROM HOST COUNTRY NATIONALS: DOES IT IMPACT EXPATRIATE ADJUSTMENT?

The present study highlights the importance of seeking help from host country nationals (HCNs) in order to facilitate expatriate adjustment. The results show that expatriate's propensity to seek wo...

Cross-cultural training and expatriate adjustment: A study of western expatriates in Nigeria

Multinational corporations (MNCs) are having difficulty retaining expatriates for their global operations. It is estimated that 10–80% of expatriates sent on foreign assignments return home prematurely. One of the reasons for expatriates’ failure has been cited as the inability of these managers and/or their spouses to adapt to the host-country's culture. As a result, cross-culture training programs provided to employees and their families by MNCs have become crucially important for successful international operations. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of cross-cultural training (CCT) on different facets of expatriate managers’ adjustment in Nigeria. A sample of 226 multinational western expatriate managers working in Nigeria was surveyed for this study. Results show that different types of cross-cultural training affect expatriates’ adjustment. Implications for practice are identified and discussed.

The relationships of organizational justice, social exchange, psychological contract, and expatriate adjustment: an example of Taiwanese business expatriates

In the field of international human resource management, studies have seldom examined organizational justice, social exchange, and psychological contract together as important factors in influencing the expatriate adjustment process. The purpose of this research is to fill the research gap by examining these factors and their relationships with expatriate adjustment. The researcher conducted a survey of Taiwanese business expatriates during the first quarter of 2007, collecting 219 valid samples for analysis. A hierarchical regression model was used to test the research framework hypotheses, which showed that expatriates' perception of organizational justice has a positive influence both on their perceptions of social exchange and on their psychological contract fulfillment. Expatriates' perceived that social exchange has a positive influence on their perceptions of psychological contract fulfillment and foreign adjustment. Finally, research implications are discussed and future study suggestions are recommended.

Individual profiles as predictors of expatriate effectiveness

PurposeThis paper aims to assess the relationship between expatriate personality and effectiveness on overseas assignments.Design/methodology/approachSurvey data were collected from 118 expatriates who were currently on assignments overseas or had been on an assignment in the past.FindingsResults of multiple regression analysis show expatriate personality traits to be significant predictors of two of the effectiveness measured used. Extraversion, emotional stability, and openness have a significant, positive impact on expatriate adjustment, and agreeableness is significant and positively associate with expatriate job performance.Practical implicationsOrganizations may be well‐served to consider expatriate personality as an important criterion for selection for overseas assignments, as successful assignments reflect on the organization in a number of ways and thus contribute to the company's global competitiveness.Originality/valueExtant research on the connection between expatriate personality and effectiveness has been limited, relies on expatriate or supervisor perceptions of which traits they believe are important to success, and has been inconsistent in measuring the effectiveness construct. This paper directly assesses personality and employs multiple dimensions of effectiveness, thus contributing to the understanding of this relationship.

Self-initiated expatriation: implications for HRM

The decision of an employee to move from their home country in order to work in another country/culture will create a myriad of issues for the employees to face. Every year, many employees take the decision to migrate. So far the literature has focused on the motivation to expatriate, on the one hand, or Human Resource Management (HRM) for international assignments within an organization, on the other hand. Little regard is paid to the opportunities HRM can play in supporting the adjustment of self-initiated expatriates to the new organization and culture. The paper derives assumptions based on Black, Mendenhall and Oddou's (1991) model of adjustment to help self-initiated expatriates to adjust and reach their performance potential more quickly. We argue that organizations should consider whether their current practices enhance or hinder the successful employment of self-initiated expatriates. Besides work-related HRM practices, HRM for self-initiated expatriates should consider expanding support into non-work areas, such as supporting partner relocation or helping to find accommodation.

A Critical Review of Expatriate Adjustment Research Through a Multiple Stakeholder View: Progress, Emerging Trends, and Prospects

This article is a critical review of the expatriate adjustment literature that focuses on studies that have considered other stakeholders in addition to expatriates themselves. To highlight current knowledge in this area, the most important, implicit assumptions that scholars seem to have made and that may have restricted the theoretical and empirical advancement of the literature are delineated. By focusing on these assumptions, this article underscores the importance of other stakeholders in influencing or being influenced by expatriates. This article also highlights three theoretical perspectives as exemplars to extend the existing literature. By so doing, this review identifies gaps and stimulates new research directions on expatriate adjustment.

Expatriate Adaptation

Abstract: * This study investigates expatriate adaptation using a sample of Japanese expatriates in the US. For a comprehensive understanding, home managers in Japan and host managers in the US were also used. * This study is unique in that it examines expatriate adaptation through an analysis of the change of a fit between 12 learning skills and the skills demands. * The degree of expatriate adaptation increased in accordance with the length of the current overseas assignment tenure in the host country, along with an increase in job satisfaction. Keywords: Expatriate adaptation * Experiential learning theory * Learning skills * Skills demands * Job satisfaction * Japan-US business Introduction In the past few decades, many researchers and theorists have focused on the study of expatriate adaptation in the domain of international management. Their topics of study comprise, among others, the adjustment process (Black et al. 1991; Aycan 1997), acculturation (Mendenhall and Oddou 1985), the paradox of adjustment (Brewster 1993), expatriate well-being at work (Nicholson and Imaizumi 1993), expatriate adjustment and satisfaction (Torbiorn 1982), expatriate experience and adjustment (Thomas 1998; Selmer 2002; Takeuchi et al. 2005), and so forth. Although a wide range of views have been presented in the studies on expatriate adaptation, the prime focus of most of these studies is on sociopsychological and welfare concern or psychological well-being that reflects the concept of expatriate adjustment (Kamoche 1997; Wong 2001). More specifically, Haslberger (2005a) pointed out that much of the cross-cultural adaptation research in the management literature has been associated with the three types of expatriate adjustments initially proposed by Black (1988): General, work, and interaction adjustments. Since these types of adjustments refer to expatriates' psychological comfort in situations (Black 1988, 1990; Black and Gregersen 1991; Takeuchi et al. 2002), they appear to converge into an emotional aspect of the expatriates. Kamoche (1997) argued that this trend may result in a misleading impression because it appears as if all the functions of expatriate management control only the welfare and social needs of the expatriates for their overseas adjustment. Cross-cultural adaptation, however, is a multifaceted phenomenon (Berry 1997) and will be discussed later; it includes affective, cognitive, and behavioral components in its theoretical foundation (Kim 1988, 1995). In keeping with this perspective, Ashford and Taylor (1990) discussed from the viewpoint of adaptation to work transition that the adaptation processes are associated with these three constructs. Therefore, expatriate adaptation may be thought to constitute the following three facets: Emotion, cognition, and behavior (see Haslberger 2005a, b). In this regard, the scope of the study on expatriate adaptation needs to be developed from the perspective of cognitive and behavioral concern, rather than only stressing on the emotional aspects, as is the dominant trend in the literature on expatriate management. For this reason, the present study particularly focuses on a behavioral aspect of expatriate adaptation by examining expatriate skills in relation to the demands for these skills. In addition, the study aims to investigate expatriate adaptation through an analysis of expatriate job satisfaction as its emotional aspect. Literature Review Cross-Cultural Adaptation Cross-cultural adaptation has been studied and discussed as a multidimensional process in the field of cross-cultural study. Klein (1979) defined adaptation as a process of attitude or behavior changes in response to new stimuli. Grove and Torbiorn (1985) examined the changes observed over time in an interactive activity between cognitions and behaviors under highly unfamiliar environments. Similarly, Hannigan (1990) regarded adaptation as the change in the cognition, attitude, behavior, and psychology of people who live in a foreign culture. …

Gender differences in expatriate adjustment

Women are still underrepresented in expatriate assignments. This study investigates whether there are any gender differences in expatriate adjustment that could help account for the low share of female expatriates. The study replicates the analysis of Selmer and Leung's (2003) exploratory research. It confirms their findings and adds further detail to the understanding of gender differences in expatriate adjustment. The study is based on a cross-sectional survey, mainly of employed members in UK and US women's clubs in Frankfurt and Madrid and their partners. This study shows that women tend to be better adjusted than men overall. They are ahead especially in important areas such as the building and maintaining of relationships. The paper provides important insight into the differences in adjustment among female and male expatriate employees. It provides an instrument that can be used in the further study of these differences. The study supplies further evidence that companies err if they fail to send women on assignments abroad.

Managing intercultural differences: the relationships between cultures, values and personality

Along with globalisation, the knowledge of cultural differences and their association with people's values and behaviour have become important. It is also important to recognise that each individual personality has its own ranking of values. Knowing the relationship between personality, values and cultures can assist expatriates in better understanding the intercultural differences within regions. Personality has an association with the expatriate's adjustment to a new culture. This paper compares the relationships between personality preferences and values in the Japanese and Finnish contexts. Japan and Finland had certain highly-ranked values and correspondingly three lowest ranked values in common. There were also some values contingent on certain personality types, more so in Finland; Japanese culture tended to equalise the value rankings a little more. Anyone attempting to adjust to a new culture and seeking success at work may find it useful to develop knowledge of the relationships between culture, values and personality.

The function of social networks in expatriate effectiveness

This study examined the role of social networks in expatriate effectiveness in their overseas assignment. The model in this study proposed that an expatriate's social network in a new culture provides two important functions: cultural information and social support, which in turn influence three aspects of expatriate's effectiveness: adjustment, job satisfaction and job performance. The results showed that the size and closeness of an expatriate's social network are positively related to the amount of social support and cultural information he or she receives respectively. The cultural information facilitates an expatriate's adjustment and job performance, and social support improves expatriate adjustment and job satisfaction. The implication of this study was discussed as well.

Elucidating the Positive Side of the Work-Family Interface on International Assignments: A Model of Expatriate Work and Family Performance

Drawing on both Job Demands-Resources theory and contagion theory, we conceptualize cognitive, affective, and conative influences on expatriate work role and family role performance. We clarify expatriate adjustment by expanding the concept to capture family role adjustment and by mapping relationships among the forms of adjustment. We also highlight the mediating role of engagement for understanding the influence of adjustment on role performance, and we consider spillover across work and family contexts and crossover between expatriates and partners.