Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector Research Articles

Mobility‐Aware Routing Algorithm for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

Mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a group of wireless mobile nodes that create a temporary network without the help of any central administration or standard support services. Mobility of nodes determines the overall performance of MANET networks. High mobility of nodes causes frequent changes in the network topology, and this leads to link breakage and increases reinitiating of the route discovery process. MANETs commonly use broadcasting techniques for route discovery process. However, it can cause redundant rebroadcasts, packet collisions, and channel contention. The main objective of this paper is to design and develop the mobility‐aware routing algorithm (MARA) to enhance the performance of the routing protocol in MANETs. The proposed scheme allows mobile nodes to rebroadcast or discard received broadcasted messages. The decision is based on the combination of node speed, distance between nodes, and residual energy of nodes. These parameters are considered both in route request and route reply process to reduce the chance of link breakage and broadcast storm problems. The proposed algorithm has been evaluated based on the performance metrics: packet delivery ratio, average end‐to‐end delay, throughput, and routing overhead. We have used network simulator NS‐2 V‐2.35. The simulation results revealed that MARA outperforms ad hoc on‐demand distance vector (AODV), mobility and direction aware (MAD), and mobility and energy‐aware (MAE) routing protocols.

Performance Evaluation of Different Mobile Ad-hoc Network Routing Protocols in Difficult Situations

Performance evaluation of Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET) routing protocols is essential for selecting the appropriate protocol for the network. Many routing protocols and different simulation tools were proposed to address this task. This paper will introduce an overview of MANETs routing protocols as well as evaluate MANET performance by using three reactive protocols—Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), Ad-Hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV), and Dynamic MANET On-Demand (DYMO)—in three different scenarios. These scenarios are designed carefully to mimic real situations by using OMNET++. The first scenario evaluates the performance when the number of nodes increases. In the second scenario, the performance of the network will be evaluated in the presence of obstacles. In the third scenario, a group of nodes will be suddenly shut down during the communication. The network evaluation is carried out in terms of packets received, end-to-end delay, transmission count or routing overhead, throughput, and packet ratio.

Towards Trust Model in Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Ad Hoc Networks

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle ad hoc networks (UAANETs) are originally designed to work in a cooperative environment. These networks are vulnerable to a wide range of attacks due to the lack of predefined infrastructure and the dynamic topology. Security in ad hoc networks, in general, is handled through authentication and encryption. This can be considered as a heavy way to protect the network due to the lack of resources in the nodes. However, trust can be introduced to address a light weight solution for some security issues. In this paper, we focus on the concept of decentralized trust to design an efficient and trustful routing protocol, and ensure stable routes between nodes in spite of the rapidly changing topology, and to provide a mechanism for detecting malicious incorrect packet forwarding attacks. The proposed light-weight trust-quality routing protocol (TQAODV) provides two main functionalities: monitoring the behavior of the neighboring nodes and computing the trust value based on the historical information in the network. Moreover, the new proposed model reduces routing overhead and route discovery frequency. The simulations we used in NS-2 show that the proposed routing scheme gives better performance against attacks compared to the traditional Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV), and improves the packets delivery ratio with about 15%, routing packets overhead and average delay with about 20%, compared to trust AODV.

A Hybrid Wormhole Attack Detection in Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET)

Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANET) are decentralized wireless networks that communicate without pre-existing infrastructure. MANETs are vulnerable to the most popular types of attacks and threats, such as wormhole attacks. A wormhole attacks is very challenging issues that records the packets from one location of the network and tunnels them to another location to undermines the performance of the wireless network and disrupt the most routing protocol. However, the existing solutions have been developed to overcome the wormhole attack, but still suffering from additional hardware, incur high delay delivery, or fail to provide high throughput, packet delivery ratio as well as consume higher energy. In this paper a hybrid wormhole attack detection (HWAD) algorithm is proposed, which is able to detect both in-band wormholes through performs round trip time (RTT) based on its hop count, and packet delivery ratio (PDR), also out-of-band wormholes through performs transmission range between successive nodes in a more optimistic manner than existing solutions. HWAD reduce the delay and energy through avoids performing wormhole detections for all available nodes in the network. HWAD does not rely on any special hardware and middleware. The proposed algorithm HWAD was executed using NS-2 network simulator. The performance metrics was taking into consideration to evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm the throughput, end to end delay, packet delivery ratio, and consuming energy. The proposed algorithm utilized Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol to improve the detection method. The experimental results have shown the performance metrics of the proposed approach HWAD outperformed in wormhole detection compared with other algorithms.

Evaluation of Routing Protocols and Mobility in Flying Ad-hoc Network

The ability of dynamic reconfigurability, quick response and ease of deployment has made Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), a paramount solution in several areas such as military applications. Flying ad-hoc network (FANET) is a net-work of UAVs connected wirelessly and configured continuously without infrastructures. Routing on its own is not significant, but the mobility sequence of a UAV in FANETs is a more significant factor and an interesting research topic. The routing protocols gives us a certain and better perception of routing structure for FANETs. In this paper, routing protocols such as Ad-hoc On-Demand Vector (AODV), Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA), Geographic Routing Protocol (GRP) and Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) are compared using performance parameters such as number-of-hops, packet loss ratio, throughput, end-to-end delay and throughput. The mobility models like Pursue Mobility Model (PRS), Semi-Circular Random Movement (SCRM), Manhattan Grid Mobility Model (MGM) and Random Waypoint Mobility (RWPM). The evaluation is carried out with three scenarios including one sender node and one receiver node, all senders one receiver and all senders all receivers are considered for above protocols and mobility models. For all evaluation scenarios, the performance of OLSR is the most efficient among the five routing protocols under four different performance parameters due to its proactive nature which makes the routing information up to date with the help of MPR (Multi Point Relay) in the network, resulting in the reduction of routing overhead in the network.

WINDMILL: A Scalable Multicast Routing Protocol for Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks

Multicasting supports various applications that need a high collaboration and require data transmission to numerous destinations concurrently. In environments where nodes are continuously moving, as in mobile Ad-hoc networks, seeking efficient routes from a specific source leading to anticipated destinations became an important issue. In this paper a novel scalable multicast routing procedure for mobile Ad-hoc networks is proposed. Our new protocol, WINDMILL, tries to improve performance by introducing a hierarchal routing algorithm and dealing with the area as zones. Furthermore, WINDMILL tries to demonstrate better scalability, performance and robustness through applying the restricted directional flooding. WINDMILL utilizes the network partitioning to forward the route request and reply packets in an efficient way and avoid forwarding duplicate packets. A qualitative comparison between WINDMILL, multicast Ad-hoc on-demand distance vector (MAODV), on-demand multicast routing protocol (ODMRP) and location aware multicasting protocol (LAMP) protocols is presented in this paper. This comparison has considered the used routing category, main contribution, routing structure and network structure maintenance, request and reply packets sending mechanisms, route activation time, selected routes length, and data packet copies number. Our investigation reveals that WINDMILL will be able to achieve scalability by attaining reduced control overhead and low number of data packets copies even within large networks. Hence, WINDMILL can be a good choice for multicasting in Ad-hoc networks established for example among students on a campus or soldiers in a battlefield, where scalability is a key issue.

An Efficient Routing Protocol Using an Improved Distance-Based Broadcasting and Fuzzy Logic System for VANET

The high mobility and frequent changes in the network topology remain a great divergence between Vehicular Ad-hoc Network (VANET) and Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET). This makes existing routing protocols for MANET imperfect for a VANET environment. In order to ensure good data transmission between vehicles, it is mandatory to improve these protocols to this new environment. Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) is one of the most proposed reactive protocols in the literature for MANET, but its direct application in VANET returns poor performance results. In this paper, we propose an Efficient Routing Protocol using an improved Distance-Based Broadcasting and Fuzzy Logic System (ERPFL), which is an extension of the AODV routing protocol. In the first, the proposed scheme uses an improved Distance-Based Broadcasting method in route discovery process. Each vehicle selects the most suitable neighbours to send a route request, using different mobility parameters such as distance, velocity and direction. Then, the destination vehicle selects the best route from the most reliable routes received, using the Fuzzy Logic System. Link Expiration Time and Link Reliability Model are considered input metrics for this system. The simulation results show that ERPFL saves network bandwidth resources which contributes to a higher data transmission ratio. In addition, our proposed protocol efficiently distributes data packets, decreases the hop count and reduces network routing time.

Performance Optimization of MANET Networks through Routing Protocol Analysis

A Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) protocol requires proper settings to perform data transmission optimally. To overcome this problem, it is necessary to select the correct routing protocol and use the routing protocol’s default parameter values. This study examined the effect of route request parameters, such as RREQ_RETRIES and MAX_RREQ_TIMOUT, on the Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) protocol, which was then compared with the default AODV performance Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) protocols. The performance metrics used for measuring performance were Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), throughput, delay, packet loss, energy consumption, and routing overhead. The results show that the OLSR protocol has a smaller delay than the AODV protocol, while in other measurements, the AODV protocol is better than OLSR. By reducing the combination value of RREQ_RETRIES, MAX_RREQ_TIMEOUT in AODV routing to (2, 10 s) and (3, 5 s), the protocol’s performance can be improved. The two combinations result in an average increase in throughput performance of 3.09%, a decrease in delay of 17.7%, a decrease in packet loss of 27.15%, and an increase in PDR of 4.8%. For variations in the speed of movement of nodes, 20 m/s has the best performance, while 5 m/s has the worst performance.

Skeleton-Based Swarm Routing (SSR): Intelligent Smooth Routing for Dynamic UAV Networks

A swarm of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) requires the transmission of mission-related data across the network. The resource constraints and dynamic nature of the swarm bring critical challenges to the design of UAV routing protocols. Most of the conventional ad hoc routing schemes are not intelligent and cannot adapt to the dynamic nature of UAV swarming networks. On the other hand, some artificial intelligence (AI)-based routing schemes may consume significant computational resources in the UAVs. In this article, a low-cost, adaptive routing protocol, namely skeleton-based swarm routing (SSR) , is proposed, which exploits an intelligent online learning algorithm and the topology features of the mission-driven UAV swarm to distribute the traffic over optimal routes. Here, the skeleton represents the most stable parts of the swarm formation. SSR architecture consists of three modules: 1) A geometric addressing module, which assigns geometric coordinates to each node based on the swarm skeleton structure; 2) A leaf-like routing pipe which allows the selection of multiple candidate routes around the shortest path; 3) An intelligent low-complexity learning model which determines how to distribute the packets inside the routing pipe to achieve load-balanced, high-throughput transmissions. The proposed skeleton-based scheme can also facilitate the UAV formation construction and morphing. The simulation results show that the proposed SSR protocol can noticeably improve the network performance (up to 100% throughput improvement) compared to the single path routing schemes, such as the ad-hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) and link-quality and traffic-load aware optimized link state routing (LTA-OLSR) protocols.

Exposing Spoofing Attack on Flocking-Based Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Cluster: A Threat to Swarm Intelligence

With the rapid development of wireless communication technology and intelligent mobile devices, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) cluster is becoming increasingly popular in both civilian and military applications. Recently, a swarm intelligence-based UAV cluster study, aiming to enable efficient and autonomous collaboration, has drawn lots of interest. However, new security problems may be introduced with such swarm intelligence. In this work, we perform the first detailed security analysis to a kind of flocking-based UAV cluster with 5 policies, an upgrade version of the well-known Boids model. Targeting a realistic threat in a source-to-destination flying task, we design a data spoofing strategy and further perform complete vulnerability analysis. We reveal that such design and implementation are highly vulnerable. After breaking through the authentication of ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol by rushing attack, an attacker can masquerade as the first-arrival UAV within a specific scope of destination and generate data spoofing of arrival status to the following UAVs, so as to interfere with their normal flying paths of destination arrival and cause unexpected arrival delays amid urgent tasks. Experiments with detailed analysis from the 5-UAV cluster to the 10-UAV cluster are conducted to show specific feature composition-based attack effect and corresponding average delay. We also discuss promising defense suggestions leveraging the insights from our analysis.

Total energy consumption analysis in wireless mobile ad hoc network with varying mobile nodes

The energy protocols that have a mechanisms of shortest path routing considered predominant in the networking scenarios. The interesting matter in the routing protocols designing deal with mobile ad hoc network (MANET) must have an energy efficient network for better network performances. The Performances of such routing protocols that can be assessed will be focused on many metrics like delay, throughput, and packet delivery. MANET is a distribution network, having no infrastructure and network decentralization. There routing protocols are utilized for detecting paths among mobile nodes to simplify network communication. The performance comparison of three protocols are Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR), the second is Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV), while the third is Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) routing protocols concerning to average energy consumption and mobile node numbers are described thoroughly by NS-3 simulator. The nodes number is changing between 10 and 25 nodes, with various mobility models. The performance analysis shows that the suggested protocols are superior in relations to the energy consumption for networking data transmission and the performance of the wireless network can be improved greatly.

WITHDRAWN: Energy optimization and reliable message communication in mobile adhoc networks using packet shifting

Abstract It is understood that there survives a challenger which needs to snoop on the energy optimization and data communication from the BS-base station to Mobile unit. Since solid correspondence stocks the comparative range with cellular networks, bothered interruption must be thought. However, when protection capacity is careful, the intruding brought about by solid message correspondence may assist with expanding the mystery interchanges by beguiling the audience members. Since the two frameworks fragment the energy optimization, comparable range, cross interruption must be estimated. An efficient energy optimization, data downloading and data sharing system with minimum interference or traffic using AODV- Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector protocol and topology based routing method is used. The enactment of the proposed system is calculated using mathematical outcomes for various circumstances.

Discovery Routing Time Speed Comparison of AODV, OLSR and ZRP protocols on MANET

Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) is a wireless network that contains a collection of nodes without infrastructure and interconnected to communicate. MANET works dynamically when a group of nodes moves spontaneously, so the network topology can change quickly and cannot be predicted. It causes changes in wireless network topology according to existing conditions. The node functions in determining the route to be selected. Ad Hoc networks have limited transmission range, so routing is needed to send data over the network. The problem with mobile nodes is that routing must provide a path when the node changes. The speed of a node obtaining information is affected by the routing protocol used in the network. Each routing protocol has different capabilities in network speed, so the discovery routing time for each routing is also different. The selected routing protocols are Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV), Optimized Link-state (OLSR), and Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP). The study will conduct a comparative analysis of ad hoc network initialization speeds on AODV, OLSR, and ZRP routing protocols. The parameter tested is the speed of routing discovery. After the data is collected, an analysis is carried out by looking at the routing discovery speed of each routing protocol. The test results show that each of the routing protocols examined, the AODV routing protocol, has a faster routing discovery time than the OLSR and ZRP routing protocols.

Empowered AODV Protocol in Wireless Sensor Network using Three Variable RSA Cryptosystem

Background: The Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is a type of networks which primarily designed for the purpose of monitoring in remote areas. It consists of communicating nodes (called sensor's) which communicate each other to share their data and passing the information to the central node. In many applications like defence requires the secure communication of information. However, due to the numerous characteristics of WSN such as open shared communication channel, limited memory, and processing power of sensors, etc. these networks are vulnerable to various attacks such as black hole, gray hole, etc. Objective: The objective of the paper is to secure the AODV routing protocol in WSN using cryptography techniques. Methods: In this paper, the Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol has been chosen for information routing because of their lightweight processing capability. To provide secure communication in WSN, the AODV routing protocol is secured by utilizing the RSA key generation algorithm. Here, RSA with three variables (three prime numbers) is employed instead of two variables. Results: The effectiveness of the proposed approach in handling black hole attack is being verified through the simulation results obtained from the experiments conducted using Network Simulator tool (NS2). The three popular performance metrics namely Average End-to-End Delay, Packet Delivery Ratio, and Average Throughput are used for evaluation purpose. These results are observed under different pose time and varying number of malicious nodes. Conclusion: In this paper, a new three variable RSA cryptosystem-based security model is proposed to protect the communication against the Black Hole (BH) attack in wireless sensor networks. The use of three variables instead of two variables allows our model to provide more security as compared to other methods. Simulation results obtained from the experiments carried out using NS2 tool evident the performance of the proposed model over original AODV and other previous models.

Performance Assessment of QoS Using AODV, TORA and ZRP Routing Protocol in MANET

In Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANET) nodes often change their location independently where neither fixed nor centralized infrastructure is present. Nodes communicate with each other directly or via intermediate nodes. The advantages of the MANET layout lead to self-structure and compatibility to most important functions such as traffic distribution and load balancing. Whenever the host moves rapidly in the network the topology becomes updated due to which the structure of MANET varies accordingly. In the literature, different routing protocols have been studied and compared by researchers. Still, there are queries regarding the performance of these protocols under different scenarios. MANETs are not based on a predesigned structure. In this paper, the performance assessment of the Quality of Services (QoS) for different protocols such as Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV), Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) and Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) in the existence of the various number of communicating nodes is studied. The performance matrices throughput, end – to – end delay and packet delivery ratio are considered for simulations. Ns 2.35 simulator is used for carrying out these simulations. Results are compared for AODV, TORA, and ZRP routing protocols. The results show that AODV and TORA perform well in end – to – end delay as compared to zone routing protocol. Zone routing protocol performs well in packet delivery ratio and throughput as compared to both the other protocols.

The resistance of routing protocols against DDOS attack in MANET

A Mobil Ad hoc Network (MANET) is a wireless multi-hop network with various mobile, self-organized and wireless infrastructure nodes. MANET characteristics such as openness restricted resources and decentralization impact node efficiency and made them easy to be affected by various security attacks, especially Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks. The goal of this research is to implement a simulation model called DDoS Attack Simulation Model (DDoSM) in Network Simulator 2(NS-2) and to examine the effect of DDoS Attack on various routing protocol types in MANET namely: Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP), Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) protocol and Location-Aided Routing (LAR) protocol. The introduced model uses the NS-2 simulator to apply DDoS on the three chosen routing protocols. In terms of throughput and end-to-end latency under the consequences of the attack, the performance of three routings protocols was analyzed.

Modelling and simulation frameworks for wireless sensor networks: a comparative study

In real-time scenarios, wireless sensor network (WSN) suffers from severe constraints such as restricted power supply, short communication range, less bandwidth availability, and small memory storage. Owing to these severe constraints, the time complexity, space complexity, and cost complexity of these networks are very high. Hence, deploying a real sensor network environment for the testing of a newly designed protocol is a Herculean task. To overcome this issue, instead of doing live implementation of such networks, simulation modelling is accepted as an alternative approach. This study provides a comprehensive study about existing network simulators along with their advantages and weaknesses. This study also presented a case study for a preferable simulation methodology, i.e. MATLAB/Simulink. Firstly, this case study highlights prominent features of MATLAB/Simulink. Secondly, simulation results of implementing AODV (Adhoc on Demand Vector Protocol) in terms of simulation runtime using four simulators net simulator-2 (NS-2), NS-3, OMNet++, and MATLAB is presented. Thirdly, survey of few very well-known clustering protocols in WSNs is done. This study will prove to be beneficial for researchers of this domain as it surveys the literature over the period 2008–2020 focusing on simulation tools and simulation metrics used by researchers to simulate WSNs.

Comparative Performance Evaluation of Mobile Ad-hoc Network Routing Protocols using NS2 Simulator

A Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET) is an independent assortment of mobile users that communicate over moderately bandwidth constrained wireless links. MANET’s topology is dynamic that can change rapidly because the nodes move freely and can organize themselves randomly; has the advantage of being quickly deployable. Although numerous routing protocols have been proposed for mobile ad hoc networks, there is no universal scheme that works well in scenarios with different network sizes, traffic loads and node mobility patterns, so mobile ad hoc routing protocol election presents a great challenge. In this paper, an attempt has been made to compare the performance of three routing protocols in Mobile Ad-hoc Networks – Ad-Hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV), Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) and Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV). We have evaluated the performance of these routing protocols with varying the number of mobile nodes and packet sizes on the basis of four important metrics such as packet delivery ratio, average end to end delay, normalized routing overhead and throughput. Network Simulator version 2.35 (NS-2.35) is used as the simulation tool for evaluating these performance metrics. The outcome of this research shows that AODV protocol outperforms DSDV and DSR protocols.

Intersection Routing Based on Fuzzy Multi-Factor Decision for VANETs

Vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) is a special form of mobile ad hoc network (MANET), which plays a key role in the intelligent transportation system (ITS). Though many outstanding geographic routing protocols are designed for VANETs, a majority of them use parameters that only affect routing performance. In this article, we propose an intersection routing based on fuzzy multi-factor decision (IRFMFD), which utilizes several features. The scheme is divided into two parts, namely vehicular decision management and intersection decision management. In the vehicular component, candidate vehicles between two static nodes (SNs) located at two intersections derive potential routing paths considering distance, neighbor quantity, and relative velocity. In the intersection component, the candidate SN was chosen from the current intersection’s 2-hop neighbors which were connected with the current intersection by a route that was decided on in part one. To get the best scheme, we also introduced other factors to estimate the number of hops in each link and link lifetime. The simulation shows that the IRFMFD outperforms on delivery ratio and end-to-end delay compared with AODV (Ad hoc on-demand distance vector), GPSR (Greedy perimeter stateless routing) and GeOpps (Geographical opportunistic routing).

Swarm-Intelligence-Centric Routing Algorithm for Wireless Sensor Networks.

The swarm intelligence (SI)-based bio-inspired algorithm demonstrates features of heterogeneous individual agents, such as stability, scalability, and adaptability, in distributed and autonomous environments. The said algorithm will be applied to the communication network environment to overcome the limitations of wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Herein, the swarm-intelligence-centric routing algorithm (SICROA) is presented for use in WSNs that aim to leverage the advantages of the ant colony optimization (ACO) algorithm. The proposed routing protocol addresses the problems of the ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) and improves routing performance via collision avoidance, link-quality prediction, and maintenance methods. The proposed method was found to improve network performance by replacing the periodic “Hello” message with an interrupt that facilitates the prediction and detection of link disconnections. Consequently, the overall network performance can be further improved by prescribing appropriate procedures for processing each control message. Therefore, it is inferred that the proposed SI-based approach provides an optimal solution to problems encountered in a complex environment, while operating in a distributed manner and adhering to simple rules of behavior.