Military Action Research Articles

Pemikiran Etika Perang Imām al-Shawkānī: Analisis Teori Just War dan Relevansi Konflik Israel-Palestina

This research analyzes Imām al-Shawkānī’s thoughts on war ethics within the Just War theory perspective, using the book “Nayl al-Awṭār.” The Israel-Palestine conflict is seen as an example of the abuse of power in just war ethics to the detriment of Palestinian civilians. Just War theory emphasises justice, proportionality and protection of civilians, yet Israel's military operations often violate these principles. Imām al-Shawkānī's thought in Nayl al-Awṭār had an Islamic perspective that emphasised justice and humanity in war. Integrating Just War principles with al-Shawkānī's ethics of war can provide a strong ethical framework to evaluate military actions in the Israel-Palestine conflict and seek a more just solution. Through a library research method and descriptive analysis, this study aims to contribute to the explanation of the connection between religion, ethics, and armed conflict, while promoting international peace and justice. Its practical implications highlight the significance of strengthening Islamic values in facing foreign cultural dominance, while its contemporary relevance underscores the necessity of upholding international law and human rights conventions in addressing armed conflicts. Thus, this research not only provides new insights into the ethics of war in Islam but also highlights the importance of actions to uphold humanity and justice in global armed conflicts.

Soil contamination of agricultural territories of Ukraine with benz(a)pyrene in the pre-war period as a criteria of background pollution in the post-war period when determining the dangerous consequences of military actions

Soil contamination of agricultural territories of Ukraine with benz(a)pyrene in the pre-war period as a criteria of background pollution in the post-war period when determining the dangerous consequences of military actions

Clinical and statistical characteristics of patients with infertility on the background of chronic pelvic inflammatory diseases of the genital organs

Reproductive health and the formation of an adequate attitude to motherhood depend significantly on the social status of a woman. An increased number of people of fertile age with burdened somatic and obstetric and gynecological pathologies, a long-term stress load caused by the social and economic crisis and military actions in the country, a high specific weight of obstetric and perinatal complications - all these factors lead to a rapid decrease in the birth rate.Pathological changes in the hormonal status of female patients, sexual health disorders, and the progressive spread of inflammatory diseases of the reproductive system lead to an increased frequency of infertility. The etiological factor is most often a microbial association, which can be represented by both absolute pathogens with a predominantly sexual transmission route, and endogenous anaerobes and aerobes.Microbial associations contribute to better adaptation of the causative agent and its parasitism, increase the pathogenicity of each causative agent, their resistance to the antibiotics, which complicates the treatment of the disease as a whole. The prevalence of papillomavirus, herpes, cytomegalovirus infection in the structure of sexually transmitted inflammatory diseases negatively affects reproductive function.The objective: to analyze the risk factors for infertility in patients with inflammatory diseases of the genital organs which are determined by urogenital mixed infection.Materials and methods. A comprehensive clinical and laboratory examination of 154 married couples with infertility was carried out. The main group included 92 women who were examined for infertility and had chronic pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) caused by urogenital mixed infection.Depending on the detected pathogens, the women of the main group were divided into groups. During the In Pouch™ test in 30 (32.6%) patients who were included in the I observation group, Trichomonas vaginalis was found in biomaterial from the vagina in association with other conditionally pathogenic factors.Chlamydia trachomatis was diagnosed in polycomponent associations with other opportunistic flora in 34 (37.0%) women using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in scrapings from the cervical canal - the II observation group.In 28 (30.4%) examined women, the human papillomavirus (HPV) was identified in the biological material from the cervix by PCR in Real time. Women with papillomavirus infection associated with opportunistic flora were included in the III observation group.To evaluate the results of the cytological examination, the Papanicolaou classification (CIN classification) and the Bethesda terminological system (The Bethesda system, TBS, 2014) were used.Results. As a result of a complex clinical and laboratory examination of women of reproductive age from 154 married couples who were observed for infertility, 60% (92 cases) of patients were diagnosed with PID due to urogenital mixed infection.Among the specific etiological factors, Trichomonas vaginalis was found in 32.6% (30 cases), Chlamydia trachomatis in 37.0% (34 cases), and HPV in 30.4% (28 cases) in multicomponent associations with representatives of opportunistic flora. It was established that, in addition to pathogenic agents of sexually transmitted infections, representatives of opportunistic flora negatively affect the reproductive function of women, among which the leading positions are occupied by mollicutes (Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma urealyticum) - 67.4%; Enterococcus faecalis – 44.6%; Esherichia coli – 38.0%; Gardnerella vaginalis – 26.0%, with a maximum decrease in the vaginal content of the number or even absence of Lactobacillus spp.In the majority of women - 78.0% (64 cases), the inflammatory process had no pronounced clinical signs, in 22.0% it was almost asymptomatic, but was accompanied by frequent (up to 3-6 per year) relapses. Among the examined women of the III group, an association of two highly oncogenic HPV genotypes was found - 11 (39.5%) cases, three or more - 7 (25.0%) cases.A tendency to an earlier onset of sexual life was determined in women with sexually transmitted diseases, especially in the group with papillomavirus infection. Risk factors for infertility include the pathological course of childbirth and the postpartum period, surgical interventions, and infectious diseases. Among the diseases of the hepatic and biliary system, chronic cholecystitis prevailed.Conclusions. On the basis of the anamnestic assessment of reproductive health in the examined women with infertility on the background of chronic PID, it is possible to single out the most important factors that negatively affect the realization of the reproductive function: the age of a woman is less than 20 and more than 30 years, social maladaptation, working conditions and harmful habits, in particular smoking, as one of the cofactors of HPV-associated diseases of the cervix, as well as early sexual debut (up to 16 years), promiscuity, ignoring barrier contraception.In the genesis of pathological changes occurring in the urogenital tract, there are mixed infections, which potentially complicates diagnosis and negatively affects the results of treatment of associated forms of diseases.

On Rittmaster Stanisław Studziński, translator of eastern languages in the service of the castellan of Cracow, Grand Hetman of the Crown Adam Mikołaj Sieniawski

The last will of the Grand Hetman of the Crown Adam Mikołaj Sieniawski, drawn up on 17 February 1726 in Lvov (today: Lviv), mentions Rittmaster Stanisław Studziński. Rittmaster Studziński won the hetman’s trust not only through his military activities, but also through his work as a court translator of Oriental languages. Studziński also worked in the royal chancellery, serving as the translator of Oriental languages to the Crown and continuing to maintain contact with the hetman. He left a manuscript containing a collection of letters and notes relating to matters with the Ottoman Porte and Crimea. Józef Ignacy Kraszewski’s article provides information on the Studziński manuscript and includes a description of letters from Crimean and Ottoman officials to Polish dignitaries from 1714–1731. The current location of the manuscript is unknown. In this text, an analysis of Studziński’s manuscript (time frame, correspondents, personal documents) is carried out to indicate the scope of the translator’s activities. Kraszewski’s information was supplemented by other information collected in the Princes Czartoryski Library, which sheds light on certain aspects of the Studziński’s activities during his years of service to Sieniawski.

Financial Support of the Kazakhs to Türkiye in the First World War

The First World War significantly influenced the destinies of numerous peoples, nations, empires, and states throughout human history. The Ottoman Empire emerged as a major participant in this global conflict, engaging on multiple fronts against the Entente States. During the war, Türkiye conducted various political, military, intelligence, and espionage activities. Among these, the Ottoman Empire incited Muslim populations in the East to join in a religious war against the Entente States. Notably, religious and propaganda efforts were undertaken in Turkestan as part of the Pan-Islamist ideology among the Turkic-Muslim peoples under Russian rule. Conversely, the Turkic-Muslim peoples of Turkestan provided various forms of support to the Turks, including financial assistance from the Kazakhs. This study aims to examine the financial aid extended by the Kazakhs to the Turks during the war, conducting a historical analysis of the reasons, development, and outcomes of this support. The analysis delves into the motivations behind Kazakh financial aid to the Turks, its evolution over time, and its impact on the war effort. By exploring these aspects, we gain insights into the complex dynamics of support networks during the First World War.

ANALYSIS OF THE DESTRUCTION OF UKRAINIAN NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE ENERGY FACILITIES AS A RESULT OF RUSSIAN MILITARY OPERATIONS

Problem statement. Due to Russia's ongoing terrorist attacks on Ukraine's energy facilities, the energy system was damaged, resulting in blackouts and rolling blackouts across the country. The destruction of power capacities resulted in the unstable operation of certain critical infrastructure units for electricity generation at thermal, nuclear and hydroelectric power plants and the introduction of forced hourly blackout schedules. Seizure of the Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant, occupation and full control of the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant and the Zaporizhzhia Thermal Power Plant (TPP). Complete destruction of the Kakhovka hydroelectric power station (HPP), partial destruction of the Dnipro HPP, Dniester HPP and Kaniv HPP. During the hostilities, Kryvyi Rih and Prydniprovia TPPs were damaged, Luhansk TPP (90–100 %), Vuhlehirsk TPP (90–100 %), Zmiiv TPP (up to 90 %) were completely destroyed, Burshtyn TPP (80–90 %) and Ladyzhyn TPP (70–95 %) were almost completely destroyed. The purpose of the article is to identify and analyse the damage to Ukrainian TPPs, HPPs and NPPs caused by the Russian military actions against Ukraine and to determine possible consequences for the nuclear fuel cycle of our country and possible prospects for the transition to new nuclear reactors of European and global fuel cell manufacturers, to improve equipment and stabilise the energy market in the context of military operations. Conclusion. In the course of the analysis of potential hazards at radiation hazardous facilities (RHF) in Ukraine, it was determined that the main threat is accidents at RHF with release of radiation into the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. In the light of recent events regarding the military seizure of the Chornobyl NPP and Zaporizhzhya NPP, measurements using standard methods of research, screening and monitoring are not possible, and access of IAEA representatives is limited, which is why the latest measurement methods should be used with the use of autonomous remote-controlled ground, surface and air drones in automatic object or sample measurement of radiation parameters at RNS. It is the use of autonomous vehicles (drones) that is currently the most pressing issue of radiation safety not only in the nuclear power industry but also in the entire nuclear fuel cycle as part of the environmental safety of Ukraine. In case of seizure of a nuclear facility or limited access to it, research methods should be changed. If the facility is partially seized or access is available, then express methods of radiation contamination registration or sampling can be used and the method of laboratory research can be used in the future. However, if a nuclear power plant or a facility that is part of the nuclear fuel cycle of Ukraine is captured and access to it is impossible, then only methods of remote measurement of the radiation situation at and around nuclear facilities using ground and airborne autonomous vehicles remain. For further research, it is necessary to identify technical possibilities for using Ukraine's own mineral resources and switching from Soviet RBMK-1000, VVER-440 and VVER-1000 reactors with fuel elements supplied to us from the Russian Federation to newer types of European and American reactors with appropriate fuel elements.

Quantification of physiological and mental workloads of faster and slower finishers of a long-distance military training activity

BackgroundLong-distance runs with equipment are practised in military training establishments to develop physical stamina and prepare for battles. A study was planned to quantify and compare the physiological and mental...

Mass Mobilization, Elite Competition, and Diversionary Use of Sanctions

Abstract How does the domestic environment affect a government's incentives to use coercion against another country? Traditional diversionary literature indicates that governments facing internal pressures will initiate military actions overseas to improve popularity. I argue that struggling governments are more inclined to employ economic sanctions over military force because of lower cost and political risk. I further posit that when governments encounter nonviolent protests and strong competition in the legislature, they have more incentives to initiate sanctions. Foreign sanctions are used to project sanctioning leaders’ competence and increase national cohesion. I test the empirical implication of the argument on a sample of 137 countries from 1975 to 2005. The multinomial logit results show that diversionary use of sanctions is more likely when incumbents face maximalist nonviolent mobilization and higher legislative opposition, but these domestic challenges do not prompt military actions. This study presents a domestic explanation for sanctions initiation; it also casts doubt on the conventional predictions that beleaguered governments will resort to the use of force.

Conceptual approaches to the complex of restoration of the affected territories as a result of military actions in Ukraine

Conceptual approaches to the complex of restoration of the affected territories as a result of military actions in Ukraine

A New “Cult of the Offensive?” Elite Perceptions of Artificial Intelligence in Military Affairs in the United States and the People’s Republic of China

Abstract The use of artificial intelligence (AI) in military affairs is largely limited to logistics, transport, reconnaissance, and other support functions at present. Yet, the United States and the People’s Republic of China (PRC) are also making significant progress in developing autonomous combat vehicles and other offensive applications of AI. The ambiguous nature and multifaceted applications of AI in military affairs could be seen as either increasing or decreasing the relative cost of offensive military action. The critical question, therefore, is not a technical determination of whether the emerging uses of AI favor the offensive or defensive force, but rather an assessment of how AI is perceived by policymakers. Similar to the World War I era cult of the offensive, ambiguous emerging technology may drive leaders to focus on the offensive advantages of that technology when expectations of conflict are rising. This paper examines the policy elite discourse surrounding the military applications of AI in both the United States and the PRC between 2014 and 2022. It finds that over this period, elite discussion of the use of AI in military affairs has shifted in both states in ways that indicate more focus on the offensive rather than defensive applications of this emerging technology. While by no means determinative, it is an indicator that perceptions of the offense–defense balance may be moving in a destabilizing direction.

Interplay of Crises: Mapping the Scientific Landscape of Intersecting Themes in the Covid-19 Pandemic and the Russian-Ukraine War

Background: In February 2022, Russian Federation troops attacked Ukraine on several fronts, thereby starting a war that continues to this day. The invasion garnered worldwide opposition, leading to sanctions imposed on politicians and corporations in the Russian Federation. The war has also left its mark on art, culture, and science. Methods: In this study, we analyse the war in Ukraine and how scholars around the world have examined it. The analysis is divided into three parts: (1) a comprehensive review of the number of articles and conference proceedings related to the Russia-Ukraine war in the Web of Science (WoS) disciplines/categories; (2) the main topics and directions chosen by the authors; and (3) a summary of studies focused on COVID-19 during the war. The latter topic is particularly important, as the COVID-19 situation in Ukraine was already complex before the 2022 invasion, and the ongoing military actions have further exacerbated it. For the above analyses, we utilised a WoS database from 2014 (covering the first Russian attack on Crimea, Donetsk and Luhansk regions) through December 2022. Results and Conclusions: For academics, the war in Ukraine has become a significant subject of study. As it proliferated, culminating in a direct mass attack in February 2022, research efforts involved more and more scientific fields. These fields range from political science and sociology research to psychology and marketing to engineering science or supply chains.

Impact of war in Ukraine and post-pandemic COVID-19 period on the psychophysiological state of Ukrainian schoolchildren aged 12-13

The article presents a comprehensive analysis of the psychophysical state of schoolchildren, taking into account the challenges posed by the post-pandemic COVID-19 period and the military actions in Ukraine. The study covers the impact of these events on the psychological well-being, physical health, social adaptation and educational achievements of schoolchildren. Using an interdisciplinary approach, the article analyses data collected through surveys, interviews, and physical health indicators, as well as psychological tests, to identify key trends and impacts. Materials and methods. The pedagogical experiment involved 103 schoolchildren aged 12-13 from general secondary education institutions of the Chernivtsi region in the period of the academic year 2023-2024 during various sports, health, recreational, and charity events. Results. The obtained results highlighted the problematic areas related to schoolchildren’s psychophysical state caused by the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic and military conflict in Ukraine. The difference in physical development between the sexes, which is statistically significant (p < 0.05), indicates a critical need to develop individually adapted programmes to promote physical activity among students. The analysis of psychological well-being using the SDQ questionnaire showed a high risk of psycho-emotional problems in 51.3 % of boys and 37.4 % of girls aged 12-13 years, which requires the development of targeted psychological and pedagogical measures. Conclusions. The conducted research indicated existing gaps in the system of modern physical education and the critical need to integrate methods and approaches aimed at improving the schoolchildren’s psychophysical state against the backdrop of general social unrest. Key words: psychophysical state, schoolchildren, military conflict, COVID-19, post-pandemic period.

Prevalence of burnout among military personnel in the plateau region of China: a cross-sectional survey

ObjectivesThe geographical environment and military activities in the plateau area pose potential work-related stressors for military personnel, leading to burnout which is an external manifestation of internal energy exhaustion caused by stress. Without countermeasures, this can result in serious military problems. This study aims to examine the association between burnout and occupational stressors among military personnel stationed in the plateau area of China.Material and methodsA stratified randomized cluster sampling survey was conducted among 2026 military personnel from 6 different troops stationed in the plateau area of China. The Chinese Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey(MBI-GS in Chinese) was administered from March 2022 to December 2023, and data were analyzed using SPSS version 25.ResultsA total of 2026 military personnel participated in the survey. The mean overall burnout score was 3.37 ± 0.73, with emotional exhaustion at 2.69 ± 0.89, depersonalization at 3.58 ± 0.92, and professional achievement at 3.81 ± 0.85 levels respectively reported by participants on average scale scores ranging from zero to six. Severe level of burnout was reported by 43.2% of participants while medium level of burnout was reported by 54 .3%. Age, education level, length of military service, and household income were identified as important factors influencing burnout.ConclusionThis study highlights a relatively high prevalence of burnout among military personnel stationed in plateau areas necessitating attention towards their occupational health particularly focusing on working hours and economic aspects so as to formulate effective policies and implement intervention measures that strengthen career development for soldiers deployed in such regions.

INDIVIDUAL PECULIARITIES OF THE SPEECH BEHAVIOR OF A FEMALE REBEL IN TAMARA HORIKHA ZERNYA’S NOVEL "DAUGHTER"

Rebellion as a form of deviant behavior has been studied by psychologists, sociologists, literary critics and linguists. In linguistics, this type of behavior (speech behavior in particular) can be studied through the lens of various fields of knowledge — linguistic personology, pragmatics, gender linguistics, psycholinguistics, etc. This study is an attempt to analyze rebellion as a peculiar type of personal behavior at different levels: verbal and action, which was expressed in specific words, phrases and actions. The relevance of the chosen topic lies in the fact that, firstly, rebellion is described within the framework of psycholinguistics, taking into account the archetypes identified by Carl Jung on the basis of the novel "Daughter" by Tamara Horikha Zernya about the war that began in 2014; secondly, the dynamics of rebellion in all its manifestations is observed: in the speech behavior and in the specific actions of a young woman who consciously resists in the occupied territory of Donetsk. The purpose of the study is to analyze the manifestations of a woman’s individual rebellion expressed by linguistic means in different communicative situations and in the process of auto-communication. The object of the research was the protagonist’s dialogues and monologues in the process of the occupiers’ military actions. The subject of the study is the linguistic means of expressing the increasing level of rebellion in a woman’s mental state as a counteraction to enemies. The research material is the text of the fictional work of the documentary book "Daughter". In the process of analysis, the following methods were used: analysis, synthesis, descriptive method, inductive method, as well as the method of psycholinguistic and contextual-interpretive analysis. The Daughter experiences different mental states, as evidenced by her speech. During peaceful times, she does not use rude words. With the enemies, she switches to the language of the occupiers, puts on different masks: a frightened girl, a grown woman and a sister who rejoices in the "liberators" as well as a brave fighter etc. The prospect for further research lies in the analysis of contemporary texts about the war, which describe the rebellion of Ukrainian heroes.

Ideologi dan Propaganda dalam Memperkuat Perlawanan di Revolusi Amerika

The American Revolution was a seminal moment in history defined not only by military action but also by the effective use of ideology and propaganda. This research explores the role of Enlightenment ideology and propaganda in strengthening resistance to British colonial rule. Ideas about human rights and government based on the consent of the governed became the philosophical basis for the revolutionary struggle, while propaganda through pamphlets, newspapers, speeches, and visual symbols spread these messages to the wider public. By utilizing effective propaganda, revolutionary leaders succeeded in mobilizing domestic support and attracting international aid, particularly from France. Visual propaganda, such as illustrations of the Boston Massacre and passionate public speeches, played an important role in building solidarity and motivation among the colonists. The findings show that ideology and propaganda are powerful tools in shaping public opinion and mobilizing the masses for revolutionary goals. The American Revolution illustrates how major historical changes often begin with shifts in thought and communication.

Sex Differences Across Concussion Characteristics in US Service Academy Cadets: A CARE Consortium Study.

To describe sex differences in concussion characteristics in US Service Academy cadets. Descriptive epidemiology study. Four US service academies. 2209 cadets (n = 867 females, n = 1342 males). Sex. Injury proportion ratios (IPR) compared the proportion of injuries by sex (females referent) for injury situation, certainty of diagnosis, prolonged recovery, recurrent injuries, mental status alterations, loss of consciousness (LOC), posttraumatic amnesia (PTA), retrograde amnesia (RGA), motor impairments, delayed symptom presentation, and immediate reporting. Concussions from varsity/intercollegiate sports [IPR of 1.73, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.43-2.10] and intramurals (IPR of 1.53, 95% CI 1.02-2.32) accounted for a larger proportion in males, whereas concussions outside of sport and military activities accounted for a smaller proportion among males (IPR of 0.70, 95% CI 0.58-0.85). The proportion of concussions with prolonged recovery was lower among males (IPR of 0.69, 95% CI 0.60-0.78), while concussions with altered mental status (IPR of 1.23, 95% CI 1.09-1.38), LOC (IPR of 1.67, 95% CI 1.17-2.37), PTA (IPR of 1.94, 95% CI 1.43-2.62), and RGA (IPR of 2.14, 95% CI 1.38-3.31) accounted for a larger proportion among males. A larger proportion of concussions that were immediately reported was observed in males (IPR of 1.15, 95% CI 1.00-2.31). Proportions of other characteristics (e.g., recurrent injuries) were not different between sexes. A higher proportion of concussions occurred outside of sport and military training for female cadets, who also displayed proportionally longer recovery times than males, despite males demonstrating a higher proportion of LOC, PTA, and RGA. Possible factors may include different mechanisms of injury outside of sport and military training, different biopsychosocial states associated with sex or injury context, and delayed injury reporting when outside of an observed environment, possibly secondary to perceived stigma about reporting injuries.

Simulation of the impact of changes in the volume of production and export of products on the food security of the country: on the example of Ukraine

Changes in the production of agricultural products in Ukraine are analyzed. Forecasting of the volume of exports of agricultural products from Ukraine until 2027 was carried out. The following factors were taken into account: projected changes in real GDP in those countries that are the main importers of these products; reduction of cultivated agricultural land caused by military actions; forecasted changes in the population of Ukraine during the forecast period. It was concluded that there are no threats to Ukraine's food security caused by changes in the production and export of agricultural products. The research was based on a forecasting method, which made it possible to take into account retrospective information and a number of internal and external factors affecting the processes of production and export of agricultural products. The sources of information were the data of the International Monetary Fund and the State Statistics Service of Ukraine. The hypotheses of the study were confirmed, and the results showed that the volume of production of agricultural products will be sufficient to support the population of the country, while maintaining the previous proportion of exports. At the same time, there is a potential for growth of the share of products that Ukraine can export. The forecast volumes of export of Ukrainian agricultural products obtained can serve as a guideline for regulating exports, taking into account the issue of food security in Ukraine.

Violence and the Voice Note: The War for Cabo Delgado in Social Media (Mozambique, 2020)

In Cabo Delgado, Mozambique, the year of 2020 marked a dramatic escalation of military activities of the Islamist insurgent group locally known as Al-Shabab or mashababe. This intensification was accompanied by a more immaterial phenomenon: the rise in prominence of social media, both as battleground and as public forum. While the insurgents sacked and occupied major towns and district headquarters, the Web 2.0 networks - Facebook and WhatsApp especially - became the central arena in which the war was apprehended and discussed. This essay is an exploration of the entwining of social media with the 'new war' in Cabo Delgado, focussing on the events that surround the conquest of the Makonde plateau, mythical cradle of the Mozambican liberation struggle. Building on a budding literature on digital militarism, the essay dwells especially on orality and the use of the voice note as a medium to convey information deemed to be more trustworthy and stable than images. Tracking these media and their interrelations, the essay establishes a narrative, however fragmentary, of the downfall of the Makonde plateau; highlights recurring features of violence in the Cabo Delgado conflict; and provides fresh insight into the formation of the Local Force (Força Local), a State-sponsored militia largely constituted by war veterans.

International Legal Aspects of the Assessment of Environmental Damage Caused by Military Actions

Military actions not only cause massive human casualties and extensive destruction of homes, infrastructure, and other property, but also a significant environmental damage. It raises the issue of the importance of assessment of environmental damage as a necessary prerequisite for obtaining reparations. The paper analyses international legal documents which relate to the issue of assessment of the amount of environmental damage, as well as relevant decisions of international bodies in this sphere. A conclusion was made about the lack of a uniform approach to the assessment of amount of environmental damage, both in international documents and in international judicial practice. The necessity of the adoption of an international document that would establish the methodology which should be used during environmental damage assessment was proved. This paper should determine components of the environment deterioration of which should be compensated.

Short-cut route validated for monitoring fentanyl and its metabolite in urine using LC–MS/MS, in a wide concentration range

BackgroundFentanyl is a highly potent analgesic, used in surgery, frequently abused or used in drug-facilitated crimes (DFC) and in military activities. It is also increasingly used in the treatment of chronic pain (especially in cancer patients). The improper use of transdermal patch forms can cause toxicity and deaths, related to overdose or combined use with other drug substances. Methods are needed for fast, reliable and inexpensive fentanyl detection and we aimed to develop such a method in urine using LC–MS/MS, especially for toxic and fatal concentrations which lack in the literature.ResultsAn LC–MS/MS method has been presented for the co-determination of fentanyl and its main metabolite, norfentanyl in urine. The recoveries of the extraction method were 95(± 6)% and 70(± 9)% for fentanyl and norfentanyl, respectively. LOD and LOQ values are 1.7 and 14.0 ng/mL for fentanyl, while they were 20.6 ng/mL and 42.0 ng/mL for norfentanyl.ConclusionA rapid, sensitive, very practical, inexpensive and a high-recovery analysis method is developed and validated. This is the only fentanyl monitoring LC–MS/MS method in urine having a linearity over a wide range up to 500.0 ng/mL and its success is demonstrated on real samples in the therapeutic drug monitoring of fentanyl and is expected to contribute to clarify intoxications/deaths related to its use.Graphical