Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Research Articles

Enhancing Tribological Performance of Self-Lubricating Composite via Hybrid 3D Printing and In Situ Spraying

In this work, a self-lubricating composite was manufactured using a novel hybrid 3D printing/in situ spraying process that involved the printing of an acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) matrix using fused deposition modeling (FDM), along with the in situ spraying of alumina (Al2O3) and hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) reinforcements during 3D printing. The results revealed that the addition of the reinforcement induced an extensive formation of micropores throughout the ABS structure. Under tensile-loading conditions, the mechanical strength and cohesive interlayer bonding of the composites were diminished due to the presence of these micropores. However, under tribological conditions, the presence of the Al2O3 and hBN reinforcement improved the frictional resistance of ABS in extreme loading conditions. This improvement in frictional resistance was attributed to the ability of the Al2O3 reinforcement to support the external tribo-load and the shearing-like ability of hBN reinforcement during sliding. Collectively, this work provides novel insights into the possibility of designing tribologically robust ABS components through the addition of in situ-sprayed ceramic and solid-lubricant reinforcements.

Investigating the distribution of microplastics in soils from e-waste dismantling sites and their adsorption of heavy metals.

Microplastics are characterized by strong hydrophobicity, large specific surface area. In addition to the pollutant they contain, the heavy metals adsorbed on the surface of microplastics can migrate or be transformed with them into the environmental medium, which is potentially harmful to humans. The distribution characteristics of microplastics in contaminated soil at the e-waste dismantling site were studied. The study investigated the adsorption characteristics of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP) and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) on copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and lead (Pb). It analysed the influence of various factors on the adsorption process of heavy metals, the adsorption law of microplastics on some of the heavy metals in the environment, and the risk of heavy metal release from microplastics to soil. The results showed that ABS and PP were the main microplastics in the contaminated soil. Among them, black, white and transparent microplastics accounted for 89.91%. The shape of microplastics is mainly granular, and microplastics with a particle size of 1-2 mm accounted for the largest proportion. Further studies showed that plastic particles made of ABS, PP and PVC also have the adsorption capacity for different types of heavy metals in soil, and the trends of adsorption capacity are: PP>PVC>ABS. When PP does not reach adsorption equilibrium in the adsorption process, the smaller the particle size and the more added amount, the greater the adsorption capacity. This is because the smaller the particle size of the microplastic is, the more adsorption points it can provide, increasing its ability to adsorb heavy metal ions.

Ispitivanje otpornosti na plošno habanje 3D ispisanih ispitnih tijela iz akrilonitril/butadien/stirena postupkom taložnog očvršćivanja

Additive manufacturing processes are of great importance for the development of modern production, which is why much research is being carried out to determine or improve the properties of 3D printed products depending on the desired application. In this work, the abrasion resistance of acrylonitrile/butadiene/styrene (ABS) test specimens was investigated using fused deposition modeling (FDM) for the production of shoe heels or shoe bottoms. The test was performed using the Martindale wear method on 3D printed ABS test specimens colored with disperse dyes in the depletion process and on 3D printed test specimens colored in the mass of the original ABS polymer. In accordance with HRN EN ISO 12947-3:2008 Determination of abrasion resistance using the Martindale method: determination of mass loss, the results show the mass loss in % and the change in thickness of the test specimen in %. Abrasion resistance was tested on substrates of varying fineness, with the outer and inner surfaces simulated according to the intended application. Six abrasive substrates were selected and three test specimens were tested for each substrate. The results of the test showed a higher abrasion resistance of the test specimens painted in the mass (original ABS polymer in color) compared to the test specimens subsequently painted with dispersion paints.

Effect of Sodium Laureth Sulfate on Contact Angles of High-Impact Polystyrene and Acrylonitrile–Butadiene–Styrene from Recycled Refrigeration Equipment

This paper investigates the effects of sodium laureth sulfate (SLES) on the wettability of the surface of the two most common recycled plastics in refrigeration equipment: HIPS (high-impact polystyrene) and ABS (acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene). These plastics, in the form of flakes, were identified on the basis of their FTIR spectra, and then, they were subjected to a study of contact angles using the sessile droplet method. The solutions for the angle analysis included tap water with the addition of SLES. The results of this study showed that at SLES concentrations of 0.1 g/L and 0.2 g/L, the differences in the contact angles for HIPS and ABS were 10.76° and 10.10°, respectively. This research confirmed the potential of using SLES as a support for the flotation separation of plastics with similar densities and surface characteristics, such as HIPS and ABS.

Optimization of the FDM Processing Parameters on the Compressive Properties of ABS Objects for the Production of High-Heeled Shoes

The influence of 3D printing parameters on compressive properties is an important factor in the application of additive manufacturing processes for products subjected to compressive loads in use. In this study, the compressive strength and compressive modulus of acrylonitrile/butadiene/styrene (ABS) test specimens fabricated using the fused deposition modeling (FDM) process were investigated with the aim of producing products of high-heeled shoes for women. The experimental part of the study includes a central composite experimental design to optimize the main 3D printing parameters (layer thickness, infill density, and extrusion temperature) and the infill geometry (honeycomb and linear at a 45° angle—L45) to achieve maximum printing properties of the 3D-printed products. The results show that the infill density has the greatest influence on the printing properties, followed by the layer thickness and, finally, the extrusion temperature as the least influential factor. The linear infill at a 45° angle resulted in higher compressive strength and lower compressive modulus values compared to the honeycomb infill. By optimizing the results, the maximum compressive strength (that of L45 is 41 N/mm2 and that of honeycomb 35 N/mm2) and modulus (that of L45 is 918 N/mm2 and that of honeycomb is 868 N/mm2) for both types of infill is obtained at a layer thickness of 0.1 mm and infill density of 40%, while the temperature for L45 can be in the range of 209 °C to 254 °C, but for the honeycomb infill, the processing temperature is 255 °C. Additionally, the study highlights the potential for sustainable manufacturing practices and the integration of advanced 3D printing technologies to enhance the efficiency and eco-friendliness of the production process.

A New Approach to Carbon Nanotube Filament Nanostructuring for Additive Manufacturing.

A new technique of additive prototyping filament volumetric nanostructuring based on the high-speed mechanical mixing of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) copolymer granules and single-walled carbon nanotube (CNT) powder (without prior dispersion in solvents) is considered. The morphological spectra of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of nanostructured filament slice surfaces were obtained and characterized with the original mathematical simulation. The relations of structural changes in the "ingredient-matrix" polymer system with dielectric and mechanical properties of the ABS-based filaments were established. The supplementation of 1.5 mass.% of CNT powder to the ABS filament composition leads to the tensile strength increasing from 36 ± 2 to 42 ± 2 MPa. It is shown that the greater the average biharmonic amplitude and the morphological spectrum localization radius of the slice surfaces' SEM images, the lower the electrical resistance of the corresponding nanostructured filaments. The possibility of carbon nanotube-modified filament functional layers forming using the extrusion additive prototyping technique (FFF) on the surface of plasma-chemically modified PET substrates (for the creation of load cell elements) is experimentally demonstrated.

Printability and mechanical properties of solution impregnated continuous jute yarn reinforced acrylonitrile butadiene styrene composites fabricated by fused deposition modeling

AbstractThis work aimed to check the influence of solution impregnated (SIP) jute yarn on printability and mechanical properties of 3D printed continuous jute yarn reinforced biocomposites. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) was employed as the matrix and the biocomposites were fabricated by in‐nozzle melt impregnation fused deposition modeling (FDM). The thermoplasic polyurethane (TPU), polystyrene (PS) and ABS solutions with the concentration of 2 and 10 wt% were prepared for making the SIP jute yarn. The best tensile strength and pull‐out results were obtained for the single strand composed of ABS and jute in which the yarn was impregnated with the solution containing 2 wt% TPU (TPU2%) before processing. The three printing parameters of layer height, print speed and nozzle diameter were changed to compare the process window of the composite specimens fabricated using the solution unimpregnated (SUIP) and SIP jute yarn with TPU2%. The results indicated that the print speed could be higher for the SIP one than that of its counterpart. The tensile and short beam shear tests of the non‐dried (ABS/NDJ) and dried ABS/Jute (ABS/DJ) composites revealed that the influence of drying was more obvious on the tensile properties results than those of on the short beam shear test. In addition, the yield stress, elastic modulus and tensile strength of ABS/DJ were 24, 17 and 12% higher than for ABS/NDJ, respectively. However, the highest tensile properties and short beam shear test results were acquired for the composites fabricated by jute yarn SIP with TPU2%.Highlights Printability of ABS/impregnated continuous jute yarn composites was studied by FDM TPU, PS and ABS of 2 and 10 wt% solutions were used to impregnate the jute yarn Three printing parameters were altered to find the process window for FDM process Best mechanical properties was obtained for ABS/Jute filament impregnated by TPU2% Process window was wider for the impregnated than that for unimpregnated composite

Enhancing performance: insights into the augmentation potential of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene/boron nitride composites

Abstract This work aims to investigate the morphological, mechanical and thermal characteristics of boron nitride (BN)-reinforced acrylonitrile-butadiene styrene (ABS) composites. ABS and ABS/BN composites with a maximum BN loading up to 8 wt% were developed using two-roll mill followed by compression molding. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images presented interlinking of BN flakes in the dimple texture of ABS. A modest decrease in tensile properties was observed for the composites. The tensile strength and impact strength for the ABS/BN8 specimen were lowered by 4.7 and 81.7 %, respectively. On the other hand, hardness increased by 3.39 % for ABS/BN8 composite. The interaction effect of BN in the ABS matrix on the thermal properties was assessed using thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA). An enhancement in the thermal-stability was observed for BN incorporated ABS. There is a modest shift in glass transition (T g) temperature to a higher value for the ABS/BN composites.

Porcospino Flex: A Bio-Inspired Single-Track Robot with a 3D-Printed, Flexible, Compliant Vertebral Column

This paper is focused on the design and development of the Porcospino Flex, a single-track robot inspired by nature and featuring a meta-material structure. In the earlier version of the Porcospino, the main body was composed of a chain of vertebrae and two end sections linked by flexible joints, but the excessive use of materials in 3D printing and the resulting weight of the robot posed challenges, ultimately leading to a decrease in its overall efficiency and performance. The Porcospino Flex is manufactured through the fused deposition modeling process using acrylonitrile butadiene styrene and thermoplastic polyurethane, featuring a singular meta-material structure vertebral column. The adoption of a lattice structure in the main body of the Porcospino Flex leads to a substantial increase in performance, reducing its weight from 4200 g to 3600 g. Furthermore, the decrease in weight leads to a reduction in material usage and waste, making a substantial contribution to the sustainability of the robot. The discussion focuses on the testing results of the Porcospino Flex prototype, highlighting the enhancements observed compared to its prior version.

Impact of deposition time per layer in large format additive manufacturing with glass fiber reinforced ABS

This paper presents a parametric study of layer adhesion in Large Format Additive Manufacturing (LFAM) applications using glass fiber (GF) reinforced acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). The study focuses on the deposition time per layer (tL) and includes an innovative approach to monitor temperature variation throughout the printing process using an infrared camera. The paper provides a detailed account of the sample fabrication process and experimental tensile tests. Specifically, this study shows how lower times per layer yield better mechanical properties as material is deposited over hotter layers, resulting in smaller thermal gradients, hence better layer adhesion and reduced warpage.

Mechanical and thermal properties of bio-based polycarbonate/acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate blends

The combination of the best properties of Polycarbonate (PC) and Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) has resulted in the development of commercially available PC/ABS blends that have been found to be useful in many molding applications. PC has excellent mechanical and optical properties, but predominant use of bisphenol A in PC synthesis raises concerns regarding its potential environmental harm. In this study, we have studied the alternative for the PC/ABS blend by replacing PC with the bio-based PC and ABS with the Acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate (ASA). A blend of bio-based PC and ASA was prepared by the melt blending techniques and investigated mechanical, thermal, and degradation (hydrolytic and soil burial degradation) properties.

Dosimetric characteristics of 3D-printed and epoxy-based materials for particle therapy phantoms

Objective3D printing has seen use in many fields of imaging and radiation oncology, but applications in (anthropomorphic) phantoms, especially for particle therapy, are still lacking. The aim of this work was to characterize various available 3D printing methods and epoxy-based materials with the specific goal of identifying suitable tissue surrogates for dosimetry applications in particle therapy.Methods3D-printed and epoxy-based mixtures of varying ratios combining epoxy resin, bone meal, and polyethylene powder were scanned in a single-energy computed tomography (CT), a dual-energy CT, and a µCT scanner. Their CT-predicted attenuation was compared to measurements in a 148.2 MeV proton and 284.7 MeV/u carbon ion beam. The sample homogeneity was evaluated in the respective CT images and in the carbon beam, additionally via widening of the Bragg peak. To assess long-term stability attenuation, size and weight measurements were repeated after 6–12 months.ResultsFour 3D-printed materials, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene polylactic acid, fused deposition modeling printed nylon, and selective laser sintering printed nylon, and various ratios of epoxy-based mixtures were found to be suitable tissue surrogates. The materials’ predicted stopping power ratio matched the measured stopping power ratio within 3% for all investigated CT machines and protocols, except for µCT scans employing cone beam CT technology. The heterogeneity of the suitable surrogate samples was adequate, with a maximum Bragg peak width increase of 11.5 ± 2.5%. The repeat measurements showed no signs of degradation after 6–12 months.ConclusionWe identified surrogates for soft tissue and low- to medium-density bone among the investigated materials. This allows low-cost, adaptable phantoms to be built for quality assurance and end-to-end tests for particle therapy.

Dimensional accuracy of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene and polylactic acid samples printed in vacuum-assisted material extrusion system

This paper discusses the impact of integrating a vacuum system into a material extrusion 3D printing process for acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polylactic acid (PLA) materials. The study aimed to investigate the effect of a vacuum system on the dimensional accuracy of the printed samples. Upon completion of the printing process, the samples’ dimensions were carefully assessed using a Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM). The geometrical dimensions measured are the diameter, corner radius, fillet, thickness, width, length and angle. Based on the result obtained, the material has yet to reach 100% of the desired geometry, which was identified due to the shrinkage of the material after the printing process. The results show that the vacuum system improved material flow and reduced dimensional deviations by reducing air molecules and minimizing convection. The results indicated a significant enhancement in dimensional accuracy for both ABS and PLA samples when using the vacuum system. ABS samples showed a 4% increase in accuracy, while PLA samples exhibited a 2% improvement compared to samples printed without vacuum assistance. These improvements were achieved by optimizing process parameters such as layer height (0.15 mm), infill percentage (10%), printing speed (45 mm s−1), and bed temperature (60 °C). These parameters were selected to ensure finer details, improved precision, structural support, stability, better adhesion, and reduced warping.

Evaluation of particle and volatile organic compound emissions during the use of 3D pens

This study investigated particle and volatile organic compound (VOC) emission rates (ER) from 3D pens, which are increasingly popular in children's toys. Nine filaments and two 3D pens were evaluated using a flow tunnel, a scanning mobility particle sizer, a proton-transfer-reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometer for particles, and a thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometer for VOCs. Results showed that the ERs varied with the pen type, filament, and brand. The particle ER was highest for acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), followed by polylactic acid (PLA) and polycaprolactone (PCL). Notably, ERs of 83 % and 33 % of ABS and PLA filaments exceeded the maximum allowable particle ER (MAER; 5 × 109 particles/min) for 3D printers but were lower than the VOC MAER (173 μg/min in the office). Different filaments emitted diverse VOCs; ABS emitted styrene and benzene, PLA emitted lactide, and PCL emitted phenol. While particle ERs from 3D pens were comparable to those from printers, the total VOC ERs from 3D pens were slightly lower. Caution is warranted when using 3D pens because of potential health risks, especially their prolonged use, proximity to the breathing zone, and usage by children. This study highlights the need for considering particles and VOCs when assessing the safety of 3D pens, emphasizing awareness of potential hazards, particularly in child-oriented settings.

Modelling Fatigue Crack Growth in High-Density Polyethylene and Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Polymers.

Prior studies into fatigue crack growth (FCG) in fibre-reinforced polymer composites have shown that the two methodologies of Simple-Scaling and the Hartman-Schijve crack growth equation, which is based on relating the FCG rate to the Schwalbe crack driving force, Δκ, were able to account for differences observed in the measured delamination growth curves. The present paper reveals that these two approaches are also able to account for differences seen in plots of the rate of crack growth, da/dt, versus the range of the imposed stress intensity factor, ΔK, associated with fatigue tests on different grades of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) polymers, before and after electron-beam irradiation, and for tests conducted at different R ratios. Also, these studies are successfully extended to consider FCG in an acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) polymer that is processed using both conventional injection moulding and additive-manufactured (AM) 3D printing.

Toward improving the compatibility of the polypropylene (PP)/acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS) blends through the incorporation of SEP and SEBS copolymers

Toward improving the compatibility of the polypropylene (PP)/acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS) blends through the incorporation of SEP and SEBS copolymers

Effect of Electrospinning Parameters on the Morphological and Thermal Properties of ABS/ENR Electrospun Fibres

The electrospun of the Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) blend with epoxidized natural rubber (ENR) is fabricated using the electrospinning technique. Research shows that ABS/ENR electrospun fibres have not been studied. The effects of electrospinning parameters were investigated to determine a significant effect on the microstructure, surface roughness, fibre diameter, and fibre distribution of the electrospun membranes. Sample preparation is made straightforwardly by dissolving ABS and ENR in acetone solvent using a magnetic stirrer. In this research, there are two solution parameters being studied: the ABS/ENR solution concentration (15 to 25 wt.%) and the ratio of ENR (100:0, 70:30, 50:50). Meanwhile, process parameters that are being studied are applied voltage (15 kV to 30 kV) and distance from syringe tip to collector (5cm to 15cm). FTIR results showed that hydrogen bond interaction occurs between ABS and ENR. According to the SEM images, micrometre and sub-micrometre fibres with a smooth surface and bead formation were produced at a concentration of 25%, a ratio of 70:30, a voltage of 30kV, and a distance of 15cm. The diameter of electrospun fibres increases with increasing solution concentration, ranging from 400 nm to 4.5 µm. The diameter of the electrospun fibres decreased with the addition of ENR, increasing voltage, and tip-to-collector distance. TGA results showed that ABS/ENR blends gave higher degradation temperature (393.7°C) than pure ABS (368.8°C), which enhanced thermal stability.

Development of a phantom for assessing the precision of setup in skin mark-less surface-guided radiotherapy.

Surface-guided radiotherapy (SGRT) is adopted by several institutions; however, reports on the phantoms used to assess the precision of the SGRT setup are limited. The purpose of this study was to develop a phantom to verify the accuracy of the irradiation position during skin mark-less SGRT. An acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic cube phantom with a diameter of 150mm on each side containing a dummy target of 15mm and two types of body surface-shaped phantoms (breast/face shape) that could be attached to the cube phantom were fabricated. Films can be inserted on four sides of the cubic phantom (left, right, anterior and posterior), and the center of radiation can be calculated by irradiating the dummy target with orthogonal MV beams. Three types of SGRT using a VOXELAN-HEV600M (Electronics Research&Development Corporation, Okayama, Japan) were evaluated using this phantom: (i) SGRTCT-a SGRT set-up based solely on a computed tomography (CT)-reference image. (ii) SGRTCT + CBCT-a method where cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) matching was performed after SGRTCT. (iii) SGRTScan-a resetup technique using a scan reference image obtained after completing the (ii) step. Both the breast and face phantoms were recognized in the SGRT system without problems. SGRTScan ensure precision within 1mm/1° for breast and face verification, respectively. All SGRT methods showed comparable rotational accuracies with no significant disparities. The developed phantom was useful for verifying the accuracy of skin mark-less SGRT position matching. The SGRTScan demonstrated the feasibility of achieving skin-mark less SGRT with high accuracy, with deviations of less than 1mm. Additional research is necessary to evaluate the suitability of the developed phantoms for use in various facilities and systems. This phantom could be used for postal surveys in the future.

Impact of Rheology-Based Optimum Parameters on Enhancing the Mechanical Properties and Fatigue of Additively Manufactured Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene/Graphene Nanoplatelet Composites.

This study investigates the interaction between static and fatigue strength and the rheological properties of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) polymer reinforced with graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) in both filament and 3D-printed forms. Specifically focusing on the effects of 1.0 wt.% GNPs, the study examines their influence on static/fatigue responses. The rheological behaviour of pure ABS polymer and ABS/GNPs nanocomposite samples, fabricated through material extrusion, is evaluated. The results indicated that the addition of 1.0 wt.% GNPs to the ABS matrix improved the elastic modulus of the nanocomposite filaments by up to about 34%, while reducing their ductility by approximately 60%. Observations revealed that the static and fatigue responses of the composite filament materials and 3D-printed parts were not solely attributed to differences in mechanical properties, but were also influenced by extrusion-related process parameters. The shark-skin effect, directly related to the material's rheological properties, had a major impact on static strength and fatigue life. The proposed method involved adjusting the temperature of the heating zones of the extruder during filament production to enhance the static response of the filament and using a higher nozzle temperature (270 °C) to improve the fatigue life of the 3D-printed samples. The findings reveal that the proposed parameter optimisation led to filaments with minimised shark-skin effects, resulting in an improvement in ultimate tensile strength compared to pure ABS. Moreover, the 3D-printed samples produced with a higher nozzle temperature exhibited increased fatigue lives compared to those manufactured under identical conditions as pure ABS.

Design and build of a portable apparatus for measuring lace tension

Laces have traditionally been used to secure the foot, limit slippage, enhance fit, and prevent injury across different types of footwear. Quantitatively assessing the merits and effectiveness of laces is technically challenging due to the lack of portable instrumentation that can measure lace tension reliably. Therefore, the purpose of the study was to design and build a portable apparatus to quantify lace tension to be used on footwear in both laboratory and real-world environments. The apparatus was designed to meet three major design criteria: (i) portable, (ii) able to accommodate different types of footwear, lace materials, and lacing patterns, and (iii) able to measure lace tension while the footwear is secured on the foot. As a result of the design process, the apparatus consisted of a base, fabricated from High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), and a frame, made from aluminum and 3D printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS). A measurement system was affixed to the frame and consisted of a lever, a non-deformable cable with a hook, a load cell, a caliper, and a microcontroller to measure the force and change in length of laces when a force was applied. The total height and weight of the apparatus was 25.5 cm and 6.35 kg, respectively. A reliability analysis was conducted using three different types of laces (waxed, non-waxed, and carbon fiber blend) and revealed a high internal consistency within lace types with alpha values of 0.95, 0.81, 0.91, respectively. The interclass reliability coefficient across lace types revealed an alpha value of 0.84. As a result of the design, build, and reliability analysis, the apparatus was able to provide reliable measurements of lace tension while satisfying the design criteria. It is envisioned that the apparatus can be used for ongoing investigations across different types of footwear and different types of laces.