Accurate Finite Element Model Research Articles

Structural Damage Detection Based on Static and Dynamic Flexibility: A Review and Comparative Study

Material damage in structures must be detected in a timely manner to prevent engineering accidents. Damage detection based on structural flexibility has attracted widespread attention in recent years due to its simplicity and practicality. This article provides a detailed overview of damage detection methods based on structural flexibility. Depending on the calculation method and data used, flexibility-based methods can be divided into the following categories: flexibility difference, flexibility derivative index, flexibility sensitivity, flexibility decomposition, static flexibility, and combinations of flexibility with other methods. The basic principles and main calculation formulas of various flexibility methods are explained, and their advantages and disadvantages are analyzed. For the method using flexibility difference, the advantage is that the calculation is very simple and does not require the construction of a finite element model of the structure. The disadvantage is that it requires the measurement of modal data of the intact structure, and this method cannot quantitatively assess the degree of damage. For the method using the flexibility derivative index, the advantage is that it only requires the modal data of the damaged structure to locate the damage, but this method is particularly sensitive to noise in the data and is prone to misjudgment. For methods based on flexibility sensitivity and flexibility decomposition, the advantage is that they can simultaneously obtain the location and degree of damage in the structure, but the disadvantage is that they require the establishment of accurate finite element models in advance. Static flexibility methods can compensate for the shortcomings of dynamic flexibility methods, but they usually affect the normal use of the structure during static testing. Combining flexibility-based methods with advanced intelligent algorithms and other methods can further improve their accuracy and efficiency in identifying structural damage. Finally, this article discusses the challenges that have not yet been solved among damage detection methods based on structural flexibility.

Study on Tightening, Anti-Loosening, and Fatigue Resistance Performances of Bolted Joints with Different Anti-Loosening Washers and Nuts

Loosening failure of bolted joints often occurs in a vibration environment. This may induce the separation of clamped components and even result in catastrophic consequences in certain situations. Various anti-loosening bolted connections have been developed and widely applied to prevent loosening. Tightening and fatigue resistance performances are also two important characteristics of anti-loosening bolted connections. However, a comprehensive comparison study of the tightening, anti-loosening, and fatigue resistance performances of typical anti-loosening bolted connections is lacking, meaning that there is a lack of material to assist in the selection of anti-loosening bolted connections in engineering. In this study, accurate three-dimensional finite element models of typical anti-loosening bolted connections with the forms of washers or nuts are established. The processes of tightening, vibration-induced loosening, and fatigue are simulated via finite element analysis (FEA). Based on the results of FEA, the tightening, anti-loosening, and fatigue resistance performances of regular bolted joints and several anti-loosening bolted connections are comprehensively compared. The results reveal that bolted joints installed with both a variable-diameter nut and an eccentric double nut are difficult to tighten. We confirm that the researched structures all have superior anti-loosening capacities compared to regular bolted joints. Additionally, the results show that the regular bolted joint achieved the worst fatigue resistance performance, i.e., the application of anti-loosening bolted connections improves fatigue resistance. Finally, the effects of preload distributions on the two nuts in bolted joints with double nuts are discussed in terms of tightening, anti-loosening, and fatigue resistance performances.

Accurate finite element modeling of multilayered flexible piezoelectric energy harvesting devices with strong coupling of structure, piezoelectricity, and circuit

Multilayered flexible piezoelectric energy harvesting devices (FPEDs) are a new future harvesting technology which are highly flexible and lightweight than familiar cantilever piezoelectric energy harvesters. This mechanical vibration driven FPED is a strongly coupled multiphysics phenomena that involve complex natural three-way interaction among the composite piezoelectric structure, the electric charge accumulated in the piezoelectric material, and a controlling electrical circuit attached to it. Efficient and accurate computational solution approaches are essential for analyzing these mechanical vibration-driven FPEDs to capture the main physical aspect of the coupled phenomena and to accurately predict the output voltage. While there are some numerical models for simple familiar cantilever type piezoelectric energy harvester reported in the literature, a fully three-dimensional strongly coupled model for complex material distributed, complex geometry, and multilayered FPED involving strong coupling of structure, piezoelectricity, and circuit phenomena has not yet been developed. A partitioned iterative algorithm is developed using a hierarchical decomposition approach wherein the coupled three fields are solved separately and coupled through loop union integration techniques that provide an efficient and accurate simulation of FPEDs. The simulation results matched the experiment results very well. This study provides a basis for the natural extension of partitioned iterative finite element coupled algorithm to simulate the future piezoelectric energy harvesting technologies involving a strong coupling of structure, piezoelectricity, and circuit phenomenon.

Reinforced concrete columns strengthened with near-surface mounted and hybrid FRP under compression with or without eccentricity: Experimental study and finite element modeling

The utilization of FRP in strengthening of reinforced concrete (RC) columns has garnered significant attention in the past two decades. Researchers have proposed the use of near-surface mounted (NSM) FRP bars with (hybrid) or without FRP jackets alongside the conventional approach of column strengthening through jacketing particularly in the presence of load eccentricity. In the realm of static loading scenarios, a significant focus has been directed toward the evaluation of the NSM, jacketing, and hybrid methodologies, while comparatively less attention has been given to the impact of various parameters on the capacity. In this article, a total of 22 RC column specimens with medium slenderness were tested under axial compressive loads with or without eccentricity to study the effect of the parameters the number and type of NSM FRP bar, the number of layers and type of FRP jacket, and the groove size for FRP bar mounting. The experimental results reveal the beneficial effects of using FRP jackets, increasing their layers and groove dimensions, and augmenting the number of NSM FRP bars on column capacity and ductility up to 36% and 197% respectively. Additionally, an accurate Finite element model has been developed and role of corbel in eccentricity application is investigated. The results showed that the corbel is not capable of transmitting the desired eccentricity.

Hysteretic behavior of prestressed high-strength bolt joint subject to combined flexure and axial forces for prefabricated prestressed spatial structures

A novel prestressed high-strength bolt (PHSB) joint applied in the prefabricated large-span ridge tube cable dome with annular struts (PLRTCDAS) was proposed. Firstly, the hysteretic behavior of the PHSB joint under combinations of bending moment and axial compression was studied by experiments. Four parameters of the PHSB joint, including the disc thickness, perforated cross plate thickness, perforated angle steel thickness, and outer sleeve height, were considered in the test. The effects of these parameters on the hysteretic curves, skeleton curves, bearing capacity, failure modes, energy dissipation behavior, and ductility were analyzed and discussed in detail. Secondly, a three-dimensional finite element (FE) model of the PHSB joint considering geometric, material, and interaction nonlinearities was established by ABAQUS. The accuracy of FE model was verified by comparing the test and numerical results. Finally, the hysteretic behavior of the PSHB joint under different combinations of axial forces and bending moments was investigated by the proposed FE model. The research indicates that the PHSB joint exhibits perfect energy dissipation capacity and higher ductility. Reducing the perforated angle steel thickness or increasing the outer sleeve height can improve the hysteretic behavior of the PHSB joint without significantly reducing its bearing capacity. The verified FE model is an effective method to simulate PHSB joint hysteretic behavior.

Dynamic response and design evaluation of circular CFT columns with ring-shaped voids under transverse impact

Presently, the research on the impact performance of the concrete-filled steel tubular (CFT) members has never considered the problem of void defect. Hence, this paper fosters a refined finite element (FE) model of the circular CFT column with ring-shaped voids under transverse impact, which considers the initial contact status of concrete. After validating the accuracy of FE models, the effects of void ratio, steel ratio, impact speed and mass of the drop hammer on the dynamic behaviour of the circular CFT column with ring-shaped voids are explored. Detailed impacting mechanisms of the defect column are acknowledged by elaborating its dynamic time history curves, failure morphology, impact force diffusion path, contact process, and stress/strain distribution rule. Calculation methods for evaluating the impact resistance of the circular CFT column with ring-shaped voids are proposed. The results declare that the appearance of ring-shaped voids would significantly weaken the impact resistance of the CFT column. The impact force and energy dissipation are greatly decreased with the increase in void ratio. Under the transverse impact, the steel tube would be seriously depressed due to the absence of effective support acted by concrete with ring-shaped void, and the core concrete would be heavily damaged in return.

Fatigue response of open hole plates: A finite element simulation investigating the influence of dynamic and static cold expansion processes

Cold Expansion (CE) techniques are extensively used in the aeronautical industry to enhance the fatigue life of open-hole plates. However, the availability of accurate Finite Element (FE) models to simulate the fatigue behavior of this process, particularly Dynamic Cold Expansion (DCE), is limited. This study introduces two novel methods for predicting the fatigue response of DCE and Static Cold Expansion (SCE) open-hole plates. The first method directly estimates the total fatigue life using Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) and the Theory of Critical Distance (TCD). The second method separates the prediction of fatigue crack initiation life and propagation life, incorporating CDM, TCD, and the Extended Finite Element Method (XFEM). Moreover, FE models are developed to simulate residual stress, stress under external cyclic loads, and fatigue crack propagation behavior for both DCE and SCE specimens. The proposed methods are evaluated, compared, and the mechanisms behind fatigue life enhancement and fatigue crack propagation modes in CE specimens are discussed. It is found that the prediction accuracy is enhanced by considering stress distributions along the thickness direction and improving the Line Method (LM) in TCD through the introduction of a novel CE parameter. The results demonstrate that both methods achieve good predictive performance, with an average error index within ±30%. Furthermore, it is observed that both DCE and SCE processes primarily improve the fatigue crack initiation life of open-hole plates, with the percentage of crack initiation fatigue life increasing as the expansion size increases. The majority of the fatigue crack propagation life in CE specimens is concentrated in the initial stages of crack propagation. In addition, the effects of DCE and SCE processes on reducing the fatigue crack propagation rate are more pronounced along the thickness direction compared to the width direction, leading to distinct crack propagation modes between CE and non-cold expansion (NCE) specimens.

Numerical analysis of rubberized engineered cementitious composite (RECC) RC beams under impact loads

The environmental hazards of unrecycled rubber products and the current movement of developing more sustainable materials shed the light on utilizing recycled rubber as aggregates in concrete. The use of recycled scrab tire rubbers as aggregates in concrete can not only reduce environmental damages but also enhance the concrete’s dynamic mechanical properties such as an increase in the overall compression strain at failure and the material’s fracture energy. Previous research has investigated using rubber aggregates in concrete for reinforced concrete (RC) structural elements under static loads. However, this study aims to utilize the improved dynamic properties of concrete with rubber to resist impact loads on beams. This article presents a novel numerical investigation of the static and impact loading response of rubberized engineered cementitious composite (RECC) beams. A three-dimensional (3D) non-linear finite element (FE) model was constructed to analyze the behavior of conventional concrete (NC), crumb RECC, and powder RECC beams under impact loads. The study employs an accurate FE model that captures the non-linear behavior of RECC materials, including their properties in compression and tension, and the strain rate effect. Moreover, the strength and toughness of concrete beams can be improved by using a hybrid section of NC and RECC. Therefore, in the current study, the behavior of crumb or powder RECC layers in compression or tension sides of NC beams was studied under impact loads as well as the effect of low-impact energy, high-impact energy and the impactor nose type (hemispherical and flat-nose cylinder) on RECC beams. The outcomes of the FE model demonstrated good agreement with the available experimental results from the literature. The dynamic response of RECC beams was analyzed using FE model outputs, including time histories of impact forces, reaction forces, internal forces (shear force and flexural moment), mid-span displacements, and dissipated energy. Results indicated that RECC enhanced the performance of RC beams under impact loads. The tension performance of RC beams under impact loads was enhanced by using RECC on the tension side or in full depth since RECC limited flexural cracks and improved flexural capacity. In Comparison with NC Beams, the RC beams mid-span displacement was reduced and the energy dissipation capacity of concrete was improved when using RECC under low and high impact energies. CRECC on the compression side or in full depth improved the distribution of impact force on the NC and reduced compression damage.

Strain Response ofan Anatomically Accurate Nonhuman Primate Finite Element Brain Model Under Sagittal Loading.

Prevention and treatment of traumatic brain injuries is critical to preserving soldier brain health. Laboratory studies are commonly used to reproduce injuries, understand injury mechanisms, and develop tolerance limits; however, this approach has limitations for studying brain injury, which requires a physiological response. The nonhuman primate (NHP) has been used as an effective model for investigating brain injury for many years. Prior research using the NHP provides a valuable resource to leverage using modern analysis and modeling techniques to improve our understanding of brain injury. The objectives of the present study are to develop an anatomically accurate finite element model of the NHP and determine regional brain responses using previously collected NHP data. The finite element model was developed using a neuroimaging-based anatomical atlas of the rhesus macaque that includes both cortical and subcortical structures. Head kinematic data from 10 sagittal NHP experiments, four +Gx (rearward) and six -Gx (frontal), were used to test model stability and obtain brain strain responses from multiple severities and vectors. For +Gx tests, the whole-brain cumulative strain damage measure exceeding a strain threshold of 0.15 (CSDM15) ranged from 0.28 to 0.89, and 95th percentile of the whole-brain maximum principal strain (MPS95) ranged from 0.21 to 0.59. For -Gx tests, whole-brain CSDM15 ranged from 0.02 to 0.66, and whole-brain MPS95 ranged from 0.08 to 0.39. Recognizing that NHPs are the closest surrogate to humans combined with the limitations of conducting brain injury research in the laboratory, a detailed anatomically accurate finite element model of an NHP was developed and exercised using previously collected data from the Naval Biodynamics Laboratory. The presently developed model can be used to conduct additional analyses to act as pilot data for the design of newer experiments with statistical power because of the sensitivity and resources needed to conduct experiments with NHPs.

Investigating and modelling of highly stressed firearms parts

Recently, there have been too many Pulemyot Kalashnikova Modernizirovannyi (PKM) machine gun bolts that have failed during the firing process. Due to the increased temperature, higher propellant gas pressure, and thermal accumulation, the bolt body is exposed to sever circumstances for ablating, corroding, and erosion. In this paper, the reasons of failure of PKM bolts during firing were evaluated first based on metallurgical experiments. Then, analysing the failure is done by create an accurate finite element model of the bolt body, calculating the cyclic fatigue life and safety factor, determining the causes of failure and be verified showing that failure locations are exactly as shown in the photographic record. the original bolt dimensions were measured using laser scanning, and a CAD model of the bolt was created. Photographic records, visual inspection, chemical analysis, SEM, and hardness measurements, all these metallurgical experiments have been done. The stress distributions and fatigue behavior of the failed bolt are both determined using the Finite Element Method (FEM). This study suggests that fatigue played a role in bolt failure. Furthermore, SEM examinations reveal that the materials contain dimple fractures. The bolt’s fatigue life was decreased by these dimpled fractures.

Structural behaviour of cold-formed steel elliptical hollow section stub columns after exposure to ISO-834 fire curve

The present study undertakes the post-fire stub column behaviour of cold-formed steel elliptical hollow sections (CFS-EHS) by experimental and numerical analyses. A total of 18 CFS-EHS stub column specimens made up of four cross-section series was firstly prepared, heated in a gas furnace as per the ISO-834 standard fire and then naturally cooled down to ambient temperature. Four fire exposure temperatures of 300 °C, 550 °C, 750 °C and 900 °C were adopted. Details of the experimental campaign, e.g., specimen preparation, test procedures and results, are presented. Accurate finite element (FE) model was established to mimic the experimental responses from various perspectives. Exhaustive parametric studies were subsequently conducted on 224 post-fire CFS-EHS stub columns to generate substantial data. The test and FE results were compared with the strength calculations using the equivalent diameter method and equivalent rectangular hollow section method developed for hot-finished steel elliptical hollow sections without fire exposure, the Direct Strength Method (DSM) stipulated in the American Specification AISI S100, as well as the modified DSM previously calibrated for CFS-EHS without fire exposure. By replacing the material properties obtained at ambient temperature with the post-fire material properties in the aforementioned design methods, it is shown that the equivalent section methods and the existing DSM overly underestimate the column strengths, whilst the modified DSM yields precise and reliable strength estimations. It is recommended to adopt the modified DSM for calculating the residual compressive strengths of CFS-EHS stub columns after exposure to the ISO-834 standard fire.

EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF A NOVEL MAGNETIC POLE REPULSIVE PASSIVE DAMPER FOR VIBRATION CONTROL

This article presents a novel magnetic pole repulsive damper (MPRD) incorporating neodymium magnetic repulsive blocks and springs. The study explores the mechanical properties of the springs and magnetic blocks through numerical simulations using ANSYS and experimental evaluation. To gain deeper insights into the behaviour of the MPRD, an accurate and high-fidelity finite element model was developed. The evaluation process involved a comprehensive comparison between the numerical simulations and experimental tests, explicitly focusing on cyclic compression–tension forces. The study encompassed the functioning, design implications, fabrication technique, mechanical performance, and numerical simulation for the cyclic compression–tension forces of the MPRD. The cyclic compression–tension tests revealed a gradual increase in force, with the MPRD achieving an ultimate force of 2,877 kN. The MPRD exhibited robust hysteresis behaviour in cyclic loading, showing its capacity to undergo and uphold the stability of the combination of its materials. The cyclic compression–tension results indicated the maximum force carrying capability of the damper. This resilience implies its full reusability in such scenarios. The comparison between cyclic compression–tension tests confirmed the alignment between the numerical simulation and experimental investigation.

Time-dependent fragility analysis of a nuclear containment structure under internal pressure and chloride-induced corrosion

The prestressed concrete containment structure, serving as the ultimate barrier against nuclear fuel leakage, holds paramount importance in ensuring the uninterrupted operation of nuclear power plants. Particularly in the aftermath of the Fukushima nuclear disaster, the influence of material aging and degradation of containment structures has been emphasized. Consequently, a probabilistic performance assessment of containment structures under chloride-induced corrosion condition is of significant relevance. This study presents a method for time-dependent fragility analysis of nuclear containment structures subjected to internal pressure, considering the effect of chloride-induced corrosion of steel reinforcement. A highly efficient and accurate finite element model with multi-layered shell element is formulated for damage and failure analysis. Furthermore, a corrosion degradation model of reinforced concrete, aligned with the attributes of multi-layered shell elements, is derived to reduce the reduce parameter samples generated by Latin Hypercube sampling technique. Material uncertainties and time-dependent effects are jointly integrated into the finite element analysis process, culminating in the establishment of fragility curves for the containment structure under various service lifetimes. The results indicate that within first 40 years of service, the load-bearing capacity of the containment structure has slightly decreased, while the probabilities of functional and structural failures in the containment structure will significantly increase after 60 years of service.

High fidelity nonlinear finite element tire modeling for dynamic analysis: Total Lagrangian formulation in rolling contact

Tire design with respect to vibrational behavior and noise emission is a challenging task due to the large number of parameters and their coupling. Therefore, accurate high fidelity nonlinear Finite Element (FE) models are needed to aid in the design process. The widely used Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) models, despite their computational efficiency, are limited to rib-slicked tires and require significant effort to consider inelastic material behavior and frictional phenomena. To overcome these limitations a novel nonlinear FE tire model is presented based on the Total Lagrangian (TL) formulation. The TL model is compared to the reference ALE model for the case of stationary rolling on a smooth and a rough road surface. The observed match of the TL model with respect to the hub and contact forces proves the feasibility of using the TL formulation in the context of rolling contact tire simulations. Therefore, the TL model can be seen as a valid alternative to the frequently used ALE models.

Seismic damage analysis of a brick masonry loess cave by a shaking table and FEM

In this paper, a typical brick masonry loess cave (BMLC) is selected, and finite element analysis software is used to establish a model and analyse its seismic performance. The model was verified by the test results of the BMLC on a 3D shaking table, and the damage quantification index was proposed. On this basis, seismic vulnerability analysis was carried out. A method based on nonlinear incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) was proposed to solve the rapid damage assessment of the traditional building of BMLC structures after earthquake action. The proposed method relies on an accurate numerical finite element model and pre-run multidimensional nonlinear IDA simulations with vibration data recorded during earthquakes. The IDA curves were built with different positions of the BMLC structure being considered. Moreover, meaningful local damage parameters were correlated with relevant seismic intensity measures. The results showed that the proposed method immediately and accurately estimated damage after seismic action if the IDA curve set had been previously constructed using a suitable model.

Verification Process for Finite Element Modeling Techniques Used in Biological Hard Tissue

Abstract An approach is presented for calculation verification of geometry-based and voxel-based finite element modeling techniques used for biological hard tissue. The purpose of this study is to offer a controlled comparison of geometry- and voxel-based finite element modeling in terms of the convergence (i.e., discretization based on mesh size and/or element order), accuracy, and computational speed in modeling biological hard tissues. All of the geometry-based numerical test models have hp-converged at an acceptable mesh seed length of 0.6 mm, while not all voxel-based models exhibited convergence and no voxel models p-converged. Converged geometry-based meshes were found to offer accurate solutions of the deformed model shape and equivalent vertebral stiffness, while voxel-based models were 6.35% ± 0.84% less stiff (p < 0.0001) and deformed 6.79% ± 0.96% more (p < 0.0001). Based on the controlled verification study results, the voxel-based models must be confirmed with local values and validation of quantities of interest to ensure accurate finite element model predictions.

Regional brain strain dependance on direction of head rotation

Brain injuries in automated vehicles during crash events are likely to include mechanisms of head impact in non-standard positions and postures (i.e., occupants not facing forward in an upright position). Federal regulations currently focus on impact conditions in primary planes of motion, such as frontal or rear impacts (sagittal plane of motion) or side impact (coronal plane of motion) and do not account for out of position occupants or non-standard postures. The objective of the present study was to develop and use the anatomically accurate brain finite element model to parametrically determine the injury metrics under different vectors with head rotation. A custom developed brain finite element model with anatomical accuracy and several anatomical regions defined was used to evaluate whole-brain strain as well as regional brain strain. Cumulative Strain Damage Measure (CSDM) at a threshold of 20% strain and the 95th percentile of the maximum principal strain (MPS95) were calculated for the whole brain and each brain region under multiple rotational directions. The model was exposed to a sinusoidal angular acceleration pulse of 5000 rad per second squared (rad/s2–) over 12.5 ms. The same pulse was used in the primary axes of motion and (lateral bending, flexion, extension, axial rotation) and combined axes representing oblique flexion and oblique extension. Whole brain CSDM20 was highest for lateral bending. Whole brain MPS95 was highest for axial rotation. The rCSDM20 was more susceptible to impact direction, with several brain regions having substantial accumulation of strain for oblique flexion and lateral bending. Comparatively, rMPS95 was more consistent across all rotation directions. The present study quantified the regional brain strain response under multiple rotational vectors identifying a high amount of variability in the accumulation of strain (i.e., CSDM20) in the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and midbrain specifically. While there was a high amount of variability in the accumulation of strain for multiple regions, the maximum strain measured (i.e., MPS95) in the regions was more consistent.

Numerical and Experimental Investigation on the Structural Behavior of Laterally Restrained Cold Formed Steel Built-Up Sigma Section

Abstract: This study focused on the structural behavior of laterally restrained Cold Formed Steel (CFS) built up Beam composed of two Sigma Section which are placed back-to-back with varying thickness, aspect ratio and yield stress. It’s aimed to create accurate Finite Element Model for CFS built up I beam. The numerical model was developed by using Finite Element (FE) software ABAQUS 6.13. The numerical investigation was checked and validated with help of experimental investigation. The load carrying capacity increases with increase in height and the thickness of the specimen. The specific strength decreases with increase in the height of the specimen. The specific strength of the specimen increases with increases in thickness.

Buckling behavior and design of large-section angle steel columns under axial compression

Large-section angle steel (LAS) columns are gradually used in building structures due to their high bearing capacity. However, the research on the instability mechanism and design method of LAS columns with yield strength below 420 MPa still needs to be improved. In order to study the axial compression stability of LAS columns, the buckling mode of LAS columns is analyzed by theoretical analysis, and a total of 192 specimens (including Q345 and Q420) are subjected to axial compression tests. An accurate finite element model was established based on the test data, the main influencing factor of the buckling behavior of LAS columns was explored, and the buckling process and characteristics of LAS columns were revealed. The results show that the buckling mode of the LAS columns is flexural buckling, and local buckling does not occur. The secondary warping stress does not affect the buckling mode and buckling factor of LAS columns. The constitutive model of the current design method underestimates the buckling capacity of short LAS columns. Based on the parametric studies, a new column curve is proposed to predicate the buckling factor of the LAS columns.

An efficient detailed layer model for prediction of separator damage in a Li-Ion pouch cell exposed to transverse compression

Li-ion pouch cells can be understood as thin-layer laminates. Pressure loads normal to flat electrodes can cause failure or thermal runaway. However, detailed models for investigating transverse pressure loads in which each layer is resolved are computationally intensive. This paper outlines two approaches for time-efficient yet accurate detailed explicit finite element models of a cell. Both approaches are characterised by the fact that they are divided into in-plane and out-of-plane behaviour. The modelling of interlaminar contacts is completely omitted, to prevent parasitic contact compliance and efforts for contact handling. A discrete element formulation is used for a computationally efficient simulation of transverse loads. This prevents a reduction of the critical time step, which can result from transversal deformations. The difference between the two modelling approaches lies in the modelling of the out-of-plane behaviour. In the first approach, the behaviour in the out-of-plane direction is generated by characterising each component separately. The second approach assumes homogenous behaviour in the thickness direction. Both approaches rely on characterization data derived from component and cell tests. The cell models are validated against cell tests. Numerical results obtained with the two modelling approaches differ only slightly from the validation data.