4th Century AD Research Articles

Forms of Modernization of Islamic Education in Türkiye in the 19th Century AD

Discussion of the modernization of Islamic education in Türkiye is nothing new. This remarkable writing about Turkish history in every perspective, makes the specificity of this article about the history of education born in Turkey. The learning method for educational modernization carried out in Turkey shows that it has been going on for a long time because of modernization for other Muslim countries that have been paying attention to education for a long time. Based on this article, it is discussed, in order to trace the background to the emergence of educational modernization in Turkey. This is to find forms of modernization as was done during that time in the field of education. So the birth of educational modernization is the impact of this situation that occurs in the social, political and economic system in Turkey. The factors of European expansion, rigid bureaucratic systems, the progress of European countries were the culmination of social change in Turkish society, giving rise to the Modernization of Education. As a result, policies and orientations emerged that brought progress to Turkey in the timing and future of exchanges. Educational modernization is a school model established by the government and society to use the curriculum implemented in schools. The treatment is carried out by adding modern science, let religious sciences be in their position, and disappear and then reappear and ultimately integrate religious knowledge with modern science is a progressive action in advancing education. Education in the form of Turkish modernization began in the 18th century, continued in the 18th century, 19th century to 20th century; Establishment of schools, empowerment communities, curriculum development, and rationalization of liberation in Turkey.

The emergence of vowel harmony in Armenian dialects

Abstract We find vowel harmony systems in many non-standard varieties of modern Armenian. It has been speculated that these may have acquired vowel harmony due to contact with Turkic varieties (Scala 2018). On the basis of an exploration of the synchrony and typology of Armenian vowel harmony, consideration of historical changes that could have caused harmony to develop, and evaluation of new data bearing on the origins of backness and rounding harmony in Oghuz, we propose that the vowel harmony systems of the modern Armenian dialects show evidence of having been influenced by Turkish, but the numerous differences between Armenian and Turkish vowel harmony point against a straightforward copying of the Turkish phonological system. We theorize that vowel harmony in Armenian arose due to a combination of language-internal and ‑external factors: vowel shifts in some Armenian dialects, alongside universal analytic and channel biases, provided the necessary preconditions for the development of vowel harmony by the 11th century AD, prior to the arrival of Turkic speakers in the Armenian homeland. Extensive contact with Turkic vowel systems may then have encouraged the phonologization of this assimilation process, but in strikingly different ways than are found in Turkic languages.

The Glass Mosaic of S. Agnese fuori le mura: New Tesserae in the Puzzle of Early Medieval Rome

The present study, which is part of a wider inter-disciplinary research project on Medieval Rome funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation, focuses on the archaeometric characterisation of glass tesserae from the apse mosaic of the church of S. Agnese fuori le mura, dated to the 7th century AD and never analysed until now. The main aims of the study are the identification of chemical compositions of glassy matrices and colouring/opacifying techniques by means of the combination of micro-textural, chemical, and mineralogical data. In S. Agnese tesserae, the results show the presence of glassy matrices and opacifiers/pigments, typical of both Roman and Late Antique/Early Medieval periods. The technological features identified (in particular, glassy matrices and opacifiers/pigments) allow us to discriminate not only new-production tesserae, i.e., those probably produced in the 7th century for the realisation of the S. Agnese mosaic, but also those obtained from recycling or re-using previous glass. This testifies to a quite complex “puzzle”, unusual in other glass mosaics from the same city and coeval with S. Agnese, supporting further the potentiality of archaeometric studies on glass to uncover the technical and socio-cultural knowledge that underpins its manufacturing, use, re-use, and recycling in the Early Medieval Rome.

Ibn Wāfid Andalusi, a medieval physician, pharmacist, and botanist, with a look at his most important work Al-Adwiyah Al-Mufradah.

The mastery of medical sciences, pharmacy, and botany can be seen in the records of Andalusian scientists. This descriptive-analytical research introduces one of the scientists of the 10th and 11th centuries AD. Medical knowledge and its affiliates are taken from the medical heritage of ancient civilizations. Andalusian scientists changed Andalusia's agricultural and economic situation by adopting new agricultural methods, especially irrigation and planting of medicinal plants. The name of Ibn Wāfid shines among Andalusian scholars. He was one of the theorists in the field of pharmacology in the Middle Ages. His practical method of treating patients is remarkable. His therapies tend to use nutritional methods more than prescribing drugs. He preferred single medications to compound ones. He insisted on curing diseases through hydrotherapy in mineral springs. While working in botany, Ibn Wāfid also specialized in medicine and pharmacy. He also benefits from the experiences of his master Zahrāwi while using the works of Galen, Aristotle, and Dioscorides. One of his honours was the establishment of several botanical gardens for the kings of the time. Ibn Wāfid's attempt at the flourishing of pharmacology, botany, and medicine can be considered a significant contribution to the visibility of these sciences in Medieval Andalusia.

Statuary Qualities of White and Black Göktepe Identified in the Hispanic Valdetorres de Jarama Marble Collection

This paper focuses on the role of the most common mineralogical techniques applied to the identification of the different statuary qualities in white, grey, and black Göktepe marble. For this purpose, the case of a Roman sculpture marble collection from the rural villa of Valdetorres de Jarama (central Iberia), dating to the 4th century AD, is presented. The mythological statuary, combining white, grey, and black marbles, is one of the most outstanding marble collections in the Aphrodisian style found in Hispania. The analytical results (achieved through Petrography, Cathodoluminescence, C and O isotopes, and Sr and Mn concentration) support the identification of two varieties of “black” Göktepe, traditionally referred to as bigio morato and bigio antico, as well as the best statuary quality of white Göktepe. In addition, the analytical identification of other Asiatic marbles in the Valdetorres collection, a white coarse-grain originally from the quarries of Aphrodisias city, and one small piece identified as Carian red from Iasos, corroborates the already suggested strong connection existing between artists and the stone material they chose for their works. Finally, the identification carried out on the marble of the bases that served as seats for the sculptures is noteworthy, as it is a white marble of lower quality whose analytical characteristics are consistent with the Microasiatic marble of Denizli. The use of these exotic and exceptional raw materials confirms the taste for luxury and decorative richness in Late Antique Hispanic rural villae and contributes to a better understanding of the distribution of Aphrodisian production and trade networks with the Western Roman provinces.

Chronological considerations for the use of the Late Roman–Migration period Cemetery at Plinkaigalis, Lithuania

AbstractThis study presents new (n=32) and previously published (n=35) human bone 14C AMS dates from 54 individuals interred in 50 burials in the Plinkaigalis cemetery (3rd–7th century AD, Lithuania). The aim of this study is to establish duration of use and identify temporal subgroups within the cemetery. Individuals in group burials were assessed for temporal agreement across individuals and the dates for individuals with multiple dates were combined using OxCal. The Sum command, Interval command, and two Bayesian models (overlapping and abutting periods of use) were used to approximate the use of the site over time and evaluate the chronology of dated burials. An IDW (inverse distance weighted) model was employed to visualize median radiocarbon dates across the cemetery for comparison to earlier IDW interpolations of time at Plinkaigalis. While the two models cannot be distinguished at this time, it can be determined that the site was likely in continuous use from 200–600 cal AD (Sum), 230–560 cal AD (Model 1), 220–550 cal AD (Model 2), or cal 283–508 AD (IDW). The area of the cemetery associated with earliest use shifted east when the IDW model was compared to original data. There was also poor agreement in some group burials and burials with multiple dates. The models generally agree on assignment of burials to phases, but disparate phase assignment was noted across the IDW and Bayesian models. Temporal subgroups cannot be confidently reclassified beyond early/later periods of use based on these models without additional sampling and refinement of the IDW modeling method.

Sejarah Islam di Nusantara Pengaruh Kebudayaan Arab dan Persia Dalam Penyebaran Islam di Nusantara

This writing explores how Arab and Persian culture influenced the spread of Islam in the archipelago. Through an accommodative, acculturative and syncretic approach, Islam in Indonesia developed with the strong influence of these two cultures. The main focus of this writing is to look at the role of Arab and Persian culture in the Islamization process through trade routes, diplomatic relations, art, architecture and literature. The method used in this writing is a qualitative method with a literature study approach. Data was collected from various literature discussing the history and development of Islam in the archipelago, especially regarding the influence of Arab and Persian culture. The results show that Arab and Persian culture has a significant role in the spread of Islam in the archipelago. The discovery of the tombs of Persian ancestors from the 14th century AD such as Fatimah bint Maimun and Malik Ibrahim from Kasyan in Java is evidence of this influence. During the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphate, the Persian Empire had close ties with the Islamic world and played an important role in the spread of Islam to the archipelago through trade and diplomatic relations. The influence of Arab and Persian culture not only introduced Islamic teachings to the local population, but also shaped Islamic identity. in the archipelago. Trade and diplomatic relations are the main channels for the spread of Islamic teachings and practices, and it is concluded that Arab and Persian culture has a very important role in the Islamization process in the archipelago. The influence of these two cultures not only spread the religion of Islam, but also enriched and shaped Islamic cultural identity in Indonesia, making Islam an integral part of the lives of the people of the archipelago.

‘Met den swaerde geexecuteert ende van levene ten dode gebracht’. Twee onthoofden in het Droevendal te Leeuwarden

‘Met den swaerde geexecuteert ende van levene ten dode gebracht’. Two beheadings in the street Droevendal, LeeuwardenDuring excavations in the street Droevendal in Leeuwarden (province of Friesland, the Netherlands), a number of graves were found. These graves lie within the area of the cemetery of the Franciscan monastery known as Galilea, dating from the 16th century AD. Not only monks were buried there but also civilians, as is evident from a number of buried women and (small) children and babies. Two of the graves contained individuals who had been beheaded. It is known that after the closing down of the monastery in 1580, part of the graveyard continued to be used to bury executed convicts. In this article, we propose a couple of historical identifications for the decapitated individuals in these two graves.

Six Sassanian artworks engraved with hunters: king, crown prince, aristocrat or pretender to the throne?

This article focuses on six Sassanian plates that have caused contradictory opinions about those depicted on them. Considering these works and a historical context, the authors have assessed the prevailing opinions and expressed their own views and probabilities. As such, the person engraved on the four Sassanian works is probably a prince who ruled northern and northeastern regions of Iran during the 4th and early 5th centuries AD and was in contact with nomadic tribes between Iran and China.

Research on the Development of Architectural Conditions for Civil Repairs in Afghanistan

During the formation of fidalism, the culture of urbanization, which was considered the necessary link in the slave society, decreased, but the Centers of Buddhist culture in Afghanistan continued to operate even after the Arab conquests in the 7th century AD. At the beginning of the 5th century, from the depths of Central Asia, the Gochhanda Yaftali tribes invaded the territory of Afghanistan, which eventually led to the extinction of the Kushan Empire. Coexistence and interaction with neighbors in a peaceful and sometimes non-peaceful way of agricultural units with nomadic tribes is one of the main features of the historical development of the people of Afghanistan and Asia. By settling in the lands of Afghanistan and accepting the local culture and enriching it with their tribal traditions, the nomadic tribes helped a lot in the emergence of the process of a new social and cultural nature in the country. The conquests of the Arab caliphs, which began in the seventh century, and as a result of the interaction of their culture with the cultural traditions of the local people, led to the creation of a new culture. And Islamic religion replaced Buddhism and other religious beliefs. Buildings for worship were built called mosques, Eidgah’s, schools and caravanserais. The formation of large commercial and handicraft cities, which took place in the development of literary and architectural sciences, which took place in the middle of the centuries of the feudal period. The Ghaznavid dynasties (10th-12th centuries) and the Ghurids, the "king of the mountains" in the 12th century, had a significant impact on the history of the early Middle Ages. In the engineering of the cities of the Ghaznavid period, the buildings of the city (Ghazni, Qala-e-Bast, Lashkargah) and also in the engineering of most of the buildings of the Ghurid dynasty (a minaret in the mountainous region of Jam), the ideological characteristics of that era have been expressed in the language of engineering. In the modern era, after the wars and the destruction of cities and places in the country, the migrations that took place as a result of the civil wars and the return to the country, brought different cultures to the country. Also, by mixing new cultures with local traditions, it caused cities and places to take a new shape. Thus, it influenced the development of Afghan architecture and the growth of modern architecture. This will be of particular importance with the combination of local architectural culture and traditions in Afghanistan.

Changes in paranasal sinus volumes, temporal bone pneumatization, internal acoustic canal and olfactory cleft dimensions over the centuries: a comparison of skulls from different epochs in Anatolia

ObjectivesInvestigating changes in temporal bone pneumatization (TBP) and paranasal sinus volumes (PSV) across different eras may help understanding not only changes in skull anatomy but also pathophysiology of chronic otitis media and sinusitis, respectively, which are common health problems.MethodsEight skulls from the second century AD, 20 skulls were from the 10th–11th centuries AD, 20 skulls from the 16th–19th centuries AD, and 60 contemporary skulls were included in this cross-sectional observational study. Using computerized tomography (CT) scans, the PSV were calculated by multiplying the height, width, and antero-posterior distance of the sinuses. TBP was divided into three types. Internal acoustic canal (IAC) length and width, and olfactory cleft (OC) width were measured.ResultsNo statistically significant differences were found between the paranasal sinus (frontal, maxillary, and sphenoid) volumes between the groups. However, TBP decreased statistically significantly over time on both sides of the skulls (p = 0.001). The contemporary IAC and OC measures were found to be significantly lower on both sides compared to the skulls from the other three eras (p < 0.001 for both).ConclusionsAlthough no significant change was observed in PSV, decreases were evident in TBP, OC width and IAC length and width over time. It appears a fair inference that changes in size of OC and IAC might be another indication of the fact that olfaction and hearing were more vital for survival in old eras. Since we do not know incidence of chronic ear problems in old eras, we cannot speculate outcome of increased TBP in terms of developing chronic ear diseases. On the contrary, increased TBP was likely to play a protective role in traumas in old ears. Additionally, the environmental influences may be crucial role in the development of paranasal sinuses.

Inventory of Historical Sites in North Padang Lawas District

This article examines the inventory of historical sites in North Padang Lawas Regency, which have significant Hindu-Buddhist cultural heritage. The urgency of this research lies in efforts to preserve historical sites that are threatened with extinction due to natural factors, human actions, and lack of attention from the government and local communities. The problem faced is how to document and preserve these sites so that they can be a source of information and further research. The methodology used in this research is a qualitative approach with descriptive methods. Data collection techniques include direct observation, in-depth interviews, and documentation studies. Data sources came from historical sites in North Padang Lawas Regency, including the Bahal temple complex and ancient Batak tombs. Data analysis techniques involved the steps of data organisation, data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion drawing. Data validity testing was conducted through triangulation of data sources and methods to ensure the accuracy and validity of the findings. The results showed that North Padang Lawas Regency has a number of important historical sites, such as the Bahal temple which was built between the 11th and 14th centuries AD. Many of these sites are endangered and require serious preservation efforts. The research provides recommendations for increased government and community attention in preserving this cultural heritage, as well as the importance of more comprehensive documentation for future research and educational purposes.

The History of Islamic Science and Its Characteristics: A Valuable Contribution to the Development of Islam in Modern Times

&lt;em&gt;As a religion that encompasses comprehensive aspects of life, Islam has made important contributions to science throughout its history. The history of Islamic science dates back to the early Islamic enlightenment from the 7th to the 14th century AD. Strong emphasis was placed on the synthesis between science and religion. Scientific thinking and research were conducted with the understanding that knowledge of the universe was integral to an understanding of God's creation. Islamic science is characterised by an inclusive and multi-disciplinary approach. Muslim scholars of the time did not limit themselves to one particular field of science, but rather studied and developed knowledge in various disciplines such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, physics, chemistry and philosophy. His valuable contributions to human civilisation. It also raises the question of how Muslims can combine the scientific heritage of Islam with the demands and challenges of the modern world, and how such a fusion can contribute to the sustainable and progressive development of Islam. As a result, the concept of Islamic science continues to be developed to this day.&lt;/em&gt;

Helmet of the migration period from the Yuvanayag mound cemetery

The article introduces first results of the research on an iron helmet found in 2022 at the Yuvanayag mound cemetery in the Vychegda River region, the Komi Republic. The mound cemetery belongs to the circle of the Veslyansky I type cemetery, which was left by migrants with a developed military culture. Its distinctive feature was the tradition of building mounds over graves. Those burial mounds are a reflection of the late Migration Period in the European North-East (5th–7th centuries AD). The found helmet of the Bandhelm type (after Ch. Miks’s classification) is a unique specimen for the region, which also had no analogues in the adjacent territories. Based on mineralogical and geochemical studies, the helmet is made of iron with micro-inclusions of native aluminum and lignite carbon matter. The helmet overlays are made of brass with inclusions of lead-copper-zinc alloys and copper. Its elongated shape and decoration with hemispherical brass overlays are close to the helmets of Sasanian Iran. Geographically, the closest analogy to the Yuvanayag find is the Bandhelm from the predatory excavations near the village of Tsaritsyno in Ryazan Region. Preliminary dating of the artefact from the Yuvanayag burial mound is the late 4th – 5th century AD.

Choburak-I – a necropolis of the Rouran period in the Northern Altai

The article presents the results of studying materials obtained during excavations of the Bulan-Koby necropolis identified as part of the large multi-temporal archaeological complex Choburak-I. This site, located in Chemal district of the Altai Republic, is being studied by an expedition from Altai State University. The burial ground included 12 mounds, which contained undisturbed burials of seven men, three women, a teenager and a child. The key features of the ritual practice identified during the excavations include a small stone mound with an oval stonework-crepidoma; shallow graves; single human inhumation; the head of the dead person pointing northwest; accompanying burial of a horse, laid “at the feet” and on top of the deceased. Representative grave goods was found in the burials, including weapons, items of human equipment, tools and household products, ornaments, as well as horse harness. An analysis of these finds makes it possible to determine the time of construction of the Choburak-I necropolis as the middle – second half of the 4th century AD, which is confirmed by the results of radiocarbon dating. An assumption was made about the short period of the burial ground functioning (no more than 30 years). It was established that this complex belongs to the Dialian tradition of ritual practice of the Bulan-Koby population, the bearers of which constituted the elite of the Northern Altai nomads in the Rouran period.

Openwork clasp from the Abakumlevo hoard of the 5th Century AD (Vladimir Region): technology and archaeological context

The article considers a round openwork clasp from a hoard of ornaments of the Volga-Finnish women’s attire found in 2021 in the village of Abakumlevo 3 (Suzdal District of Vladimir Region). Currently, the clasp as the entire complex of hoard items is not a typical find on the territory of Suzdal Opolye. The authors conducted a technological analysis of the ornament and made a review of items similar in appearance from the Volga-Finnish sites. The features of the formation of a wax model were studied and the composition of the metal in the clasp was determined. The review of openwork clasps with a similar design and individual ornamental elements showed that the formation of the appearance of the clasp from the Abakumlevo Hoard dates back to the late 4th – early 5th century AD, and all structural elements find analogies, first of all, in the ornamentation of the Ryazan-Oka archaeological culture. Breast clasps recorded to the north and northeast of the main area of the above culture can be considered as markers of the migration directions of the Middle Oka region’s population, actively influencing the surrounding Volga-Finnish population related to the former.

The hoard of Juchid coins from excavation site CXCII in the Bolgar fortified settlement

The article introduces the hoard of silver coins found in 2016 on the territory of the Bolgar fortified settlement in excavation site CXCII, square 75, and establishes the concealment time of the find. In total, the hoard contained 11 dirhams of Bolgar coinage. A metrological analysis of coins of types С/180 and С/197 with the involvement of the author’s photo archive is given. Based on the depth of the hoard and other coins (pools of the 14th century) in square 75, the author concludes that the hoard was hidden in the late 1320s. Taking into account the previously published materials, the newly found hoard was assigned number 33 A in the order of hoards recorded. The paper also gives information about the topography of single finds of C/180 type and the hoard of 14th century AD dirhams from southern mints.

To studying coins of the Grand Principalty of Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal (late 14th – early 15th century AD)

The article considers the results of years-long study in the coinage of the Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal Principality of the late 14th – early 15th century AD (prior to the monetary reform of the early 1410s). About 17,500 coins were involved in the study, systematized and divided into four groups. The first group includes sovereign coinage from the period of independence of the Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal Principality (5107 items), the second one includes monetary issues of Moscow governors after the annexation of Nizhny Novgorod to Moscow for the period of 1392–1410 (3074 coins), and the third one comprises anepigraphic coins of the late 14th – early 15th century AD, largely unidentified by issuer and place of their coinage (5427 coins). Bilateral imitations of Jochid dirhams (more than 3800 coins; some of which are associated with coins of the main groups due to common stamps) are not considered in the paper.

Women’s belt from mound 12 of the Belorechensk burial ground

The article focuses on the analysis of a belt and a silver belt set from a female burial of mound 12 of the Belorechensk burial ground (excavations by Nikolai Veselovsky in 1896) now kept in the collection of the State Hermitage Museum. There was a medieval principality of the Circassians known as Kremuk located in the middle reaches of the Kuban River, in the vicinity of the modern cities of Maikop and Belorechensk. The belt was found in one of the richest female burials which probably belonged to a noble Circassian woman. The burial can be dated not earlier than the second third of the 15th – early 16th century AD. It is a women’s belt, as it lacks details typical for men’s military belts – accessories necessary for mounting weapons. It is possible that it was assembled from different parts: the plaques constitute one complex, the tip and buckle are from another one. The place of production of the belt, both silver fittings and braid, can be defined as the Black Sea region. Sash fabrics can be either imported or produced in the workshops of the Northern Black Sea region.

FILSAFAT PENDIDIDIKAN ESENSIALISME DAN PERENIALISME

Abstract The philosophy known as essentialism advocates a return of humanity to ancient civilizations. According to their beliefs, humanity has benefited greatly from ancient culture. The Essentialist school of thought prioritizes not abandoning cultures that have survived for a long time. Essentialism and permanence have similar properties. During the 13th century AD, perennialism proudly recognized the success of the ideas and thoughts of ancient civilizations, including Greece and the Middle Ages. They believe that the ideas and concepts of these two eras are still valuable today. This approach uses a qualitative methodology, which involves the use of a 'literature research model that analyzes content from multiple sources and combines references. This study seeks to investigate the philosophical stance of essentialism and perennialism in relation to education. Keywords: Philosophy, Essentialism and Perenialism.