4th Century AD Research Articles

Fenland Fields: Evolving Settlement and Agriculture on the Roddon at Viking Link Substation, Bicker Fen, Lincolnshire

Archaeological mitigation undertaken by Headland Archaeology (UK) Ltd at Bicker Fen, Lincolnshire, uncovered the remains of two distinctly different enclosure systems situated on a raised roddon (the dried raised bed of a watercourse). The earliest of these systems was characterised by a series of inter-linked enclosures that formed part of a larger complex farmstead developing around the mid-2nd century AD. The enclosure system subsequently evolved through phases of maintenance and expansion, potentially following changes in agricultural practice or as a result of environmental influences. Features in the northern part of the excavation provide some evidence for industrial activity, including iron smithing and bone working, within the settlement. Zooarchaeological evidence, however, suggests that the main economic focus of this rural community was beef production. It seems that the farmstead remained occupied until at least the 4th century AD, with radiocarbon dates suggesting continued activity of some kind into the 5th century. The Saxon field system was situated to the east of the Roman settlement and is geographically independent. The system is less substantial in nature than the Roman enclosures, characterised by curvilinear boundaries and irregular enclosure sizes. Radiocarbon dating suggests that activity took place between the 6th and 10th centuries AD. During this phase, the focus appears to have been pastoralism. This, together with the transient nature of the system and many maintenance phases, suggests seasonal or otherwise ad hoc land use away from the core of any settlement.

A Roman bath with broken windows in Asine, Argolis. The result of repeated earthquakes?

A substantial assemblage of Roman window glass—consisting primarily of “cast”, matt/glossy examples, but also including cylinderblown, double-glossy window glass—was discovered during the 1926 excavations of a Late Roman bath in Asine, Argolis, the Peloponnese, Greece. It is clear that this material emanates from damage done to the building, and the question of whether this had human or natural causes is discussed in this paper: was it the “barbarian” invasion of the Visigoth king Alaric in the late 4th century AD that led to the windows being broken? Or, was the damage caused by the earthquakes known to have hit the Eastern Mediterranean area in Late Antiquity? Traces of destruction typical of earthquakes were found in the bath building, and the destruction occurred in a period known for its high seismic activity: the so-called Early Byzantine Tectonic Paroxysm, which led to the conclusion that the bath was hit by at least one, possibly several, earthquakes, causing the windows to shatter and fall out of their frames. Some of the glass sherds were in all probability hidden under dust and debris and were never recovered despite the fact that glass was extensively recycled at the time.

Monasteries in the vicinity of Armenian capitals (7th–13th centuries ad): Archaeology of architectural and urban context

The article analyzes the spread of monasteries in the immediate vicinity or on distant approaches to two cities of Armenia of the late classical and medieval periods, considering information in the sources, the results of archaeological excavations and on-site inspections of the sites. The author reconstructs the sequence of the topography of churches and monasteries near the capitals of the country – Vagharshapat and Ani, identifying the similarities and differences between them. It is noted that the development of the system of shrines in the vicinity of Vagharshapat was determined by the very history of the establishment of Christianity. The main patrons of the church construction from the 4th to the 7th centuries AD were Catholicoses. In the vicinity of Ani, where a surge in the construction of monasteries occurred in the first half of the 11th century AD, there was no given programme, and the originators included the Bagratuni kings and influential princes. While the development of churches near Vagharshapat started under the Arsacid dynasty, continued after the abolition of their royal power, and reached its peak in the first half of the 7th century AD, the monasteries in the vicinity of Ani, founded under the Bagratids, were subsequently developed less actively. In addition, the paper also reveals the specific location of monastic complexes in the vicinity of Ani in connection with the terrain crossed strongly by gorges and the traditional concentration of towns and monasteries along the right, and less often the left, banks of the Akhuryan River. Both on the Ararat Plain and on the Shirak Plateau, the churches and complexes accompanying the capital cities transformed the landscape, so ecclesiastic architectural images marked the visual boundaries of a special, elite culture.

Bone and antler products from the Toretskoye urban settlement of the 15th century ad

Products made of bone and antler complement the characteristics of the material culture of the Toretskoye urban settlement, a major centre of crafts and international trade in the Kazan Khanate. In accordance with the general dating of the single-layer site, all items made of bone and antler have a reliable period of existence within the 15th century AD. Based on frequent numismatic material and other related context, the products receive the status of a chronological and, in some cases, ethnocultural reference point, and in terms of inventory and manufacturing techniques they represent products of urban production. No specialized bone-carving workshops have been found at the site; however, the presence of blanks and faulty products in the coppersmith and blacksmith workshops makes it possible to conclude that bone and antler processing was a related craft of complex production.

New group of glazed Anatolian Pottery from the Ottoman fortress of Azak

The article introduces a new group of glazed pottery of Anatolian production from the archaeological studies of different years (1962, 2004, 2020) on the territory of the former Ottoman fortress of Azak in the North-Eastern Azov Region. Among the finds, there are 20 fragments of open shaped vessels (bowls, plates) and one fragment of the lid which originate from redeposited cultural layer of the site dated back to the late Middle Ages – Modern period. Close analogies can be found on the Crimean peninsula in the materials from the excavations in Sudak, Aluston, Cembalo, Mangup, Partenit, Biyuk-Lambat (Maly Mayak), and Chufut-Kale where they are generally dated by the last quarter of 15th–17th century AD, as well as in South-Western Georgia (Gonio fortress in Adjara) and on the Taman Peninsula (the Taman fortified settlement) in the cultural layer of the 16th–17th centuries AD. Production centre for this group of Ottoman pottery has not yet been established. The group got its conventional name ‘thick-walled bichrome bowls’ due to the dominant archaeological remains of thick-walled bowls with the characteristic decor style in the Crimea.

Tenth-century Hoard from the village of Korobkino in Kursk Province

In 1915, near the village of Korobkino, Kursk Province, a hoard of seven silver bracelets and a solid dating from 923–924 was found. The article determines its place in the historical and cultural context of both the region and Eastern Europe as a whole. It has been established that these decorations are not characteristic of the Romny antiquities. It is evident from the design of bracelets with tied ends and the use of thick wire, polyhedral in section. Gold coins were found mainly on the territory of Rus. The solid from Korobkino is the only find in the vast area of the Romny archaeological culture, which fact emphasizes the peculiarity of the complex. The author suggests dating the hoard within the second–third quarters of the 10th century AD. In general, its composition demonstrates the synthesis of northern (Scandinavia) and southern (Byzantium) contacts of the population of the emerging Rus culture. The owner of the hoard was related to the druzhina (prince’s retinue) layer of society. No other traces of such a distinct “Russian presence” concentrated in one complex have been found in the Severian land so far.

Window Glass of a Medieval Church at the Village of Veseloye Near Adler

Frequent finds from the excavations of a Christian church of the late 9th–11th century AD at the village of Veseloye (Greater Sochi) include fragments of unpainted and coloured window glass made by blowing in the disks shape, mostly, of 18 cm diameter. By the design of their edges, discs are divided into two types – one with a loop-shaped edge and one with a slightly thickened straight or slightly raised edge, and by the type of surface – smooth ones and those decorated with relief “optical” decor. A review of finds of medieval window glass over a wide area shows that finds from the Veseloye church fit into this array typologically and chronologically, which can be explained by the common technology of manufacturing this highly demanded glass product. In further research, it will be necessary to find out where window glass was produced for the churches of medieval Abkhazia and the Greater Sochi region.

Sources of Silver in North-Eastern Rus in the 10th–13th centuries ad according to lead isotope analysis

The article discusses the results of lead isotope analysis of 54 silver objects from the 9th–13th centuries AD from rural sites of Suzdal Opolye and villages around Murom. As a result of comparing the obtained data with the available databases for Pb-Pb isotopic values of archaeological objects from various collections and ore samples, it was established that in the second half of the 10th – early 11th century AD, Samanid dirhams were used in Opolye as a raw material for jewellery making. In the 11th century, silver from European sources began to flow into the region via the Baltic, becoming dominant by the end of the century. In Opolye and Murom of the 12th century, adornments were made from European raw materials.

Slaves as Gifts to Accompany Letters: A Critical Study of the Bo’ Abdul Kadim

This study discusses the tradition of letters in the kingdom of Bima, especially concerning giving enslaved people as gifts to accompany letters. The data for this study were taken from the manuscript bundle of bo’ (official royal records) during the reign of Sultan Abdul Kadim Muhammad Shah (1751–1773). Now, the manuscript is part of the collection of the Samparaja Cultural Museum, Bima, West Nusa Tenggara and is coded C.011 Bo. Within the manuscript bundle, we found 117 (out of a total of 548) letters discussing slaves and slavery in the Bima kingdom. We first used philological research methods, then these texts were analysed with historical records to obtain a complete understanding of slaves and slavery in the 18th century AD societal traditions. The results showed that slaves giving as a gift accompanying the letter was a symbol of respect for the recipient of the letter, which was following the Malay correspondence tradition. For local rulers, slaves were the most valuable treasure. Slaves were also a determinant of social status among the nobility in the past. This practice applies not only in Bima but throughout the Malay land and even Southeast Asia.

Pakaian Diraja Melayu: Kain Tenggarung dari Sudut Sosio Budaya Melayu.

Tenggarung cloth is a type of traditional Malay woven textile woven by Malay weavers. Around the 19th century AD, Tenggarung cloth was worn by the Royal family and Malay nobility during official government and state ceremonies. This Tenggarung fabric is used as the Malay Royal clothing, especially in the states of Pahang, Terengganu, and Kedah. It is used especially by Malay Royal relatives who have a title. Now Tenggarung cloth has become less and less known and even less produced by Malay textile weavers due to the lack of demand from the local market in addition to the dumping of textiles from outside such as brocade cloth from India and Pakistan. This research is to study Tenggarung cloth as Malay Royal clothing from a Malay socio-cultural point of view. This research uses qualitative methods in the process of collecting research data through two methods, namely primary and secondary. Analytical research is conducted through observation on the visual collection of Tenggarung cloth as well as its historical records. Meanwhile, the purpose of this study is also to provide more information to the community about Tenggarung cloth as a traditional Malay textile from the aspects of culture, history, heritage and the value of the beauty of the Royal Malay clothing.

Food and Environment During the Late Roman Age at the Site of Alba Fucens (Abruzzi, Italy)

Archaeobotanical analyses in Italy are uneven in terms of geographical and chronological distribution. Amongst the different regions, Abruzzi is poorly represented, with only one study covering the Roman Age. In this framework, the analyses carried out on carpological remains collected from the Late Roman (late 5th–early 6th century AD) filling of a well in the Sanctuary of Hercules in Alba Fucens represents an important addition to the state of the art. The plant assemblage consists of over 1500 remains attributed to 68 different taxa. These are partly represented by gathered fruit plants, such as Corylus avellana, Juglans regia and Sambucus nigra, while cereals and pulses are missing. An interesting aspect is represented by evergreen plants (Pinus pinea and Cupressus sempervirens) that are likely to have been used for ritual purposes rather than for human consumption. Finally, the impressive amount of ruderal and spontaneous plants represents a unicum for this type of study, allowing us to describe the past environment surrounding Alba Fucens, characterized by substantial water availability, Apennine grasslands and influenced by human presence.

Surgical Ethics in the Safavid Era, 16th Century AD.

Medicine-and specifically surgery and surgical ethics-have long been part of the history of science. Surgical ethics play a pivotal role in ensuring successful outcomes and maintaining the highest standards of patient care. It includes the ethics of surgeons, the responsibility of surgeons, surgical errors, and the competence of a surgeon. Many works have been written about surgery, including during Iran's Safavid period (1501 to 1736)-a period in which a surgeon needed to have a set of moral principles in addition to practical surgical skills. One of the most valuable is Dhakhīrıh Kāmılıh, written by military surgeon Hakim Mohammad in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In this work, Ḥakim Muhāmmad dedicates a chapter specifically to the topic of surgical ethics, aiming to provide moral and legal recommendations for surgeons in addition to explaining surgical techniques and methods. Some of these recommendations include improving surgical skills through observation and practical training, paying attention to hygiene to prevent the spread of infection, and giving patients hope for recovery. Dhakhīrıh Kāmılıh is a landmark text in the history of surgical ethics.

The Path of African Millets (Pennisetum glaucum and Sorghum bicolor) to Iberia

Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) is the most widely cultivated millet in Africa and India but has not yet been identified in Europe, while the earliest remains of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) are attested in Italy in the fifth century AD. This paper presents evidence that pearl millet was introduced to Iberia during the 11th–12th centuries AD. This is the first documented evidence for this African crop in Europe. Sorghum, on the other hand, appears as a later introduction (14th century AD) in Iberia. We present archaeobotanical data from eight Andalusi sites in Valencia and Andalucía (southern Iberia) where both crops have been found. We have also examined medieval textual data where references to pearl millet appeared to be absent, and we conclude that the word “dacsa”, currently used to refer to sorghum, should be understood as a reference to pearl millet. From the 16th century onwards, this term was given to maize, when the American cereal replaced the African millets.

Geoarchaeological Study of Kyshkala During the 11th–15th centuries AD

Geoarchaeological Study of Kyshkala During the 11th–15th centuries AD

Affinities of the Sargat Population in the Baraba Forest-Steppe

Within-group, between-group, and comparative analysis of craniometric data relating to local and chronological samples of the Sargat population (5th century BC to late 3rd / 4th century AD) was carried out. The study focuses on sample from the Baraba forest-steppe. Comparative analysis, performed with the principal component method, included Early Iron Age samples from adjacent territories. No discontinuity was found in the spatio-temporal cranial variation among the Sargat groups. Despite differences between the three Sargat samples (Baraba, Irtysh, and Trans-Ural), they all represent one and the same Caucasoid physical type, characterized by meso-brachycrany, medium-high braincase, wide low, and somewhat flattened face, moderately inclined frontal bone, and protruding nasal bones. The Baraba group differs from two others by a wider face, larger pyriform aperture, and largest dacryal width. Comparative statistical analysis indicates affinities of the male part of Sargat groups with nomads of the Urals and Kazakhstan—Saka, Sauromatians, and Sarmats. Possibly, military campaigns by the Achaemenid state against the nomadic tribal unions of Central Asia in the second half of the 6th century BC triggered the migration process. Initially, migrants moved to the Irtysh basin, and thence to the western (Trans-Ural) and eastern (Baraba) peripheries of the emerging Sargat culture. The female part of the population was less affected by migratory processes. Female samples of the Sargat reveal an autochthonous cranial complex.

Praktek Terbaik dalam Model Kurikulum dan Pembelajaran Pendidikan Islam Tradisional

Traditional Islamic education, particularly through pesantren, has a rich and important history in the development of Islam in Indonesia since the 7th century AD. Its role is significant in preserving religious identity, advancing knowledge, maintaining the Arabic language, strengthening morality, and perpetuating Islamic culture. The main principles of traditional Islamic education curriculum include monotheism (tauhid), the Quran and Sunnah, religious knowledge, character formation, practical skills, contextualization, and personality development. This research employs literature method and qualitative approach by gathering data from various sources such as books, journals, and digital sources. This allows for a deeper understanding of effective teaching methods including student-centered approaches, experiential learning, technology utilization, and collaboration. The integration of spiritual and intellectual development creates balanced and conscious individuals. Adapting traditional practices into modern education combines cultural values with relevant technology. Preserving the essence of traditional Islamic education in the present era requires deep understanding, integration with modern science, engaged learning, character education, cultural preservation, and teacher development. Thus, traditional Islamic education remains relevant and beneficial for the development of better individuals and society.

Akberdino-3 – the Great Migration Period Manor in the Forest-Steppe Zone of Southern Pre-Urals

The present study is based on materials obtained during archaeological excavations at the Akberdino-3 site in 2009. The site is located on the right bank of the Belaya River in the forest-steppe zone of Southern Pre-Urals (modern Iglinsky District of the Republic of Bashkortostan, 15 km southeast from the Ufa-city). It is shown that a single thin cultural layer of this small settlement site contains Imendyashevo, Turbasly ceramics, and ceramics with a mixture of both these traditions, and can be dated to the 4th century AD (most likely from the middle to the end of this period), but this manor existed for a very short time. The studied osteological sample was compared with data on 18 zooarchaeological samples from Southern Ural and bordering territories. Multivariate analysis of this dataset has shown that at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD there was a significant transformation in the composition of herd, held by local population.

Revisiting the Issue of Attribution of Some Catacomb Monuments Groups from the South of Eastern Europe in the Late 3rd – early 5th Centuries

The catacomb funerary ritual had a widespread occurrence among the southern Eastern European population in late Roman times and at the beginning of the Great Migration Period. The Alan culture monuments of the 2nd – 4th centuries AD from the North Caucasus and the “Alans-Tanaites” nomadic culture of the late 3rd – 4th centuries AD feature the burial ritual most widely and vividly. Evidently, the migration occurred in a westerly direction from the “Alan-Tanaitian” culture area in the late 3rd century, resulting in the appearance of a group of under-kurgan burials in the steppe zone of the Dniester-Danube interfluve. It is possible that the people who left these kurgans in the 4th century were assimilated by the Chernyakhov culture bearers and switched to a sedentary lifestyle, having lost the kurgan funeral ritual (Belen’koe burial ground) but retained the catacomb burial structure of almost predominantly type II. The catacomb burials under the kurgans graphically feature the Alans-Tanaites fate after the encounter with the Huns, who defeated and subjugated the Alans-Tanaites, partly incorporating the vanquished population into their military and political union. The Alans-Tanaites took part in the campaign in Transcaucasia and Western Asia as part of the Hunnic army (395–398), as evidenced by the specific forms of the catacombs in the kurgans of the Palasa-Syrt burial ground from the Western Caspian region. A group of kurgan catacombs in the Middle Don and the Left Bank of the Dnieper features the partial outflow of the Alans-Tanaites from the Volga-Don steppes under the pressure of the Huns in the course of their expansion. A part of the Alans-Tanaites participated in the movement of the Huns to the west, as evidenced by the catacombs in the Budzhak steppe dating back to the last quarter of the 4th century.

The early medieval origins of copper ore extraction in the Carpathian Mountains

The case study addresses the question of the early medieval revival of copper production in Europe. The focus of the research area is the Carpathian Basin, located on the eastern periphery of the zone influenced by European early medieval processes. The research of where and when early medieval metal production started in the region in our case also provides answers to the question of how the region was linked to the European continental economic network, which is until recently an unresolved problem. Ore extraction and the production of various non-ferrous metals (copper, silver, gold) had important centres in the Carpathian Mountains throughout the Middle Ages until the Modern Era. Concerning the Avar period, our study comprises lead isotope and chemical analyses of ‘Late Avar’ (c. 8th century AD) copper rivets, used for certain purposes alongside the copper alloys predominant in the period. As rivets were selected from the entire Avar cultural area, expanding virtually to all lowland and hilly areas in the Carpathian Basin, results are representative of the entire region. It shows that Avar craftsmen producing large quantities of copper alloy objects in the 8th and the early 9th century were supplied with copper from a single mining district, from the ore deposits of the Slovak Ore Mountains in the today Central Slovakia, a region which became an important metal-processing centre in the 11th century AD.

Islam Di Komering Desa Betung Kec. Semendawai Barat, Kab. Oku Timur, Sumatera Selatan

The history of the entry and development of Islam in Komering Betung is one of the phenomena of the development of Islam in Indonesia, especially in South Sumatra. The presence of several ulama in the 16th to 18th centuries in the Komering area was a trigger for the development of Islam in Komering. Of the many ulama, there are 3 ulama who started preaching in Komering, one of which is Tuan Di Pulau (Sayid Hamimul Hamiem) whose grave is currently in Campang Tiga Village, Kec. Cempaka. He is a Komering Muslim figure who is said to be the forerunner of Islam in Komering Betung. Islam in Komering had several triggers for its development, one of which, apart from the ulama who started arriving, was the end of the conflict between the Abung Tribe and the Komering Tribe in Komering in the 17th century. So after the conflict was over, the development of Islam spread further to the Uluan and Ilir areas, assisted by with the presence of Makkah scholars who gradually came to this area in the 18th century AD. Apart from the historical aspect, the discovery of Islamic archaeological objects and material heritage is one of the authentic evidences of Islamic history in Komering Betung.