5th Century BCE Research Articles

A study of 11th–15th centuries AD glass beads from Mambrui, Kenya: An archaeological and chemical approach

Twenty-three 11th–15th centuries AD glass beads collected from the archaeological site of Mambrui in Kenya were analysed using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). The results show that all of the glass samples are soda-alumina-silica glass. They belong to the mineral soda- alumina (m-Na-Al) glass type, characterised by high alumina and relatively low calcium and magnesia contents, that was widely distributed in eastern and southern Africa and southeast Asia in the 5th century BCE – 19th century CE. They were made with a mineral alkali flux called reh and sand. Comparison with contemporary m-Na-Al glass beads from Africa and southeast Asia shows that all of the Mambrui glass beads share similar characteristics to m-Na-Al 6 glass. This new glass type was recently identified by Dussubieux and Wood (2020) and is characterised by elevated levels of U (avg. 60 ppm) and Cs (~1.5 ppm). It is commonly found in eastern African sites such as Manda and Gede in Kenya. The lead isotope results suggest that the Mambrui glass beads might have been coloured using lead sources from four different sources including ores from India and northern Thailand.

Western Mareotis lake(s) during the Late Holocene (4th century BCE–8th century CE): diachronic evolution in the western margin of the Nile Delta and evidence for the digging of a canal complex during the early Roman period

Abstract. Lake Mareotis (modern Mariut), located near the Mediterranean coast of Egypt west of the Nile Delta, is bordered by ancient sites dating from the New Kingdom (end of the 2nd millennium BCE) to the Medieval period (8th century CE), the most famous one being Alexandria. In its western part (wadi Mariut), several sites are equipped with harbour structures, but they also have structures contemporaneous with them that are not compatible with the lake level required for the operation of the harbour. Between the 1990s and 2010, several sedimentological studies tried to solve this paradox without completely succeeding. To go further, this study is based on the reassessment of geoarchaeological data and on the analysis of early scholars' accounts (1800–1945), maps (1807–1958) and satellite photographs (Corona). It allows us to reconstruct the extension of the lake(s) at different periods in wadi Mariut. During the 1st millennium BCE, the Mariut lagoon experienced a drawdown in its western part, and several distinct lakes formed, followed by building operations in some emerged areas during the Hellenistic period (332–30 BCE). During the early Roman period (30 BCE–284 CE), the digging of several canals in the 2nd century CE to connect the sites of the wadi Mariut to the eastern part of the Mariut basin reconfigured the lake(s).

Early evidence of royal purple dyed textile from Timna Valley (Israel).

In the context of a broad study aimed at examining dyeing technologies in the Timna textiles collection, three samples of prestigious fibers dyed with murex sea snail were identified. Our identification is based on the presence of 6-monobromoindigotin and 6,6-dibromoindigotin components (detected using HPLC analysis), which is considered unequivocal evidence for the use of murex-derived purple dyestuff. Furthermore, by comparing the analytical results with those obtained in a series of controlled dyeing experiments we were able to shed more light on the specific species used in the dyeing process and glean insights into the ancient dyeing technology. The samples originated from excavations at the extensive Iron Age copper smelting site of “Slaves’ Hill” (Site 34), which is tightly dated by radiocarbon to the late 11th–early 10th centuries BCE. While evidence for the important role of purple dyes in the ancient Mediterranean goes back to the Middle Bronze Age (early 2nd millennium BCE), finds of dyed textiles are extremely rare, and those from Timna are the oldest currently known in the Southern Levant. In conjunction with other observations of the very high quality of the Timna textiles, this provides an exceptional opportunity to address questions related to social stratification and organization of the nomadic society operating the mines (early Edom), the “fashion” of elite in the region during the early Iron Age, trade connections, technological capabilities, and more.

Claiming the land or protecting the goods? The Duchcov hoard in Bohemia as a proxy for ‘Celtic migrations’ in Europe in the 4th century BCE

The paper presents a geochemical analysis of a remarkable assemblage from the early La Tène period (4th century BCE): the Duchcov hoard found in the late 19th century in north-western Bohemia. More than a thousand pieces of bronze jewellery (mostly brooches and bracelets) in a bronze cauldron were deposited in a natural spring. This possibly ritual offering of unknown purpose might have involved a large community whose origin and structure could be discussed using archaeometric data from the hoard. The typologically and chronologically highly homogeneous assemblage with stylistic parallels across western and central Europe offers a unique opportunity to study Iron Age bronze metalworking, for which scientific data in Europe are still sparse. The assemblage was studied using a range of methods to derive information on the composition of the alloys and to determine their provenance using trace element patterns and lead isotope analysis. The results show that this seemingly homogeneous assemblage contains several chemically distinctive groups that are compatible with the spread of the so-called Duchcov-Münsingen horizon in the 4th century BCE. Mobility patterns or economic networks that may have resulted in such diverse geochemical data are discussed. The paper also discusses the multi-statistical approach to evaluating data in order to determine provenance. The findings and their narrative are discussed in the historical framework of the ‘Celtic migrations’ in Europe in the 4th century BCE.

Tightening the Bonds between Edom and Israel (Gen 33:1–17*): On the Further Development of Edom’s Role within the Fortschreibung of the Jacob Cycle in the Exilic and Early Persian Periods

Abstract The article re-evaluates the role of Edom within the Jacob narrative and its formation processes. The bulk of the narrative stems from the pre-exilic period, supposedly the 8th century BCE. This article’s distinctive thesis is that Edom’s role undergoes certain developments during its Fortschreibung in the exilic and early Persian periods. The article will venture from the reconciliation scene in Gen 33:1–17*—the original ending of the earliest Jacob narrative—and describe the development of Edom’s role at different stages of its literary growth (e.g., the earliest Patriarchal narrative, the Abraham narrative, or within P). It will be observed that the strong and positive bond between Israel and Edom becomes even tightened within this process, which is remarkable because their relationship arguably worsened to a certain degree in the events accompanying the destruction of the Judahite kingdom. The article will investigate the historical realities behind this development.

Naghmeh Mahzounzadeh, Eugenio Bortolini. “Beyond Shape: a New Perspective on the Classification of Arrowheads from the Historical Pre-Islamic Period in Iran”

The article, published in the first number of the new series of East & West journal edited by ISMEO, proposes an innovative methodology, based on pattern recognition techniques, for the study of the metal arrowheads, and a new typology mainly focused on materials dated between the 6th and 4th century BCE. The authors propose a first pilot study, part of a larger project still underway, in which 167 arrowheads from the sites of Persepolis, Tol-e Ajori and Susa are taken into consideration. Eac...

The directional occurrence of the Levantine geomagnetic field anomaly: New data from Cyprus and abrupt directional changes

We present new insights on the directional occurrence of the Levantine Iron Age Anomaly (LIAA) through the analysis of new and previously published directional archaeomagnetic data from Cyprus and nearby countries. The new directions, obtained from in situ baked clay structures such as small hearths and ovens from five Cypriot archaeological sites, dated from 2000 BCE to 1400 CE, are very well defined and are added to the scant reference dataset for Cyprus. The new records together with literature data from nearby countries are used to investigate the directional variations of the geomagnetic field in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. The first directional palaeosecular variation curve for Middle East is calculated using a critical selection of reference data from Cyprus, Israel, Turkey and Syria. The curve covers the last four millennia and shows several periods characterized by abrupt directional changes. A maximum change in curvature is clearly observed around 900 BCE, characterized by a change rate as high as 13.2° per century. The new curve confirms that during the Levantine Iron Age Anomaly notable for extreme intensity values, the geomagnetic field was characterized by steep inclinations and important directional change too. The maximum curvature is shifted by around one century from the two distinct intensity spikes previously observed in Levant around the 10th and 8th centuries BCE. Other periods of important curvature change are also identified and deserve further investigation.

Fair and Stable Prices in the Age of Greed: The Torah View

Much of the Jewish legal tradition deals with business ethics. This paper focuses on an overlooked precept: ensuring price stability. There is a tendency to trivialize the law mandating that prices be kept low and affordable, but in the wake of the 2020 world pandemic, these laws are more important than ever. Indeed, very few people are aware that the ninth blessing of the ancient Amida (also known as shemoneh esrei) prayer, established by the 120 members of the Great Assembly in the 5th century BCE, is a prayer for divine protection against individuals who would raise prices unjustly. This paper illustrates the importance of this law and provides interesting stories and examples of individuals who protected the public against hoarders. Ethical leaders have an obligation not to take advantage of vulnerable members of the public by price gouging.

A Helmet of the Archaic Period in the Krasnodar Museum – Problems of Attribution

In 2020, an illicitly excavated bronze helmet confiscated by the FSB was brought to the Krasnodar Felitsyn State Historical and Archaeological Museum-Reserve. The helmet was assembled from two parts and embellished with engraved geometric and zoomorphic designs. The upper section is marked with a finial crafted from a wax model in shape of the head of a bird of prey. Two other helmets of this type are currently known, both from archaeological complexes: one from the village of Kholodny Rodnik near Tuapse (discovered in 2012), the other from the megalithic burial “Krinitsa-I” (2018 excavations). An analysis of the items found with these helmets allows us to date all three helmets to the 6th century BCE. The Krasnodar helmet is the more elaborately decorated of the three, with geometric ornaments analogous to those on Colchian-Koban bronzes of this period and zoomorphic designs imitating the Scythian Animal Style. All this gives reason to suggest this series of helmets to have been produced on commission for the warrior elite of the Northwestern Caucasus in the workshops of the Central Caucasus, which traditionally produced bronze table wares. The Krasnodar helmet is probably the earliest in this group. A rudimentary rim encircles the entire calotte – a feature going back to cast helmets of the Kuban type. The Krasnodar helmet can be dated to the end of the 7th – first half of the 6th centuries BCE.

Le ὀφημίαρχος de Kérinthos en Eubée. Une interprétation linguistique

Two inscriptions found at Kerinthos (territory of Chalcis), dating to the 4th and 3rd century BCE, document the noun ὀφημίαρχος, which refers to a local official unknown elsewhere. The present paper claims that the first constituent of ὀφημίαρχος is * ὄφημος or * ὀφήμιος, a compound which combines * ὀπί, an old variant of the preposition ἐπί ‘ on’, and the neuter ἧμα ‘ a throw’ > ‘ projectile’, a deverbative noun from ἵημι “ to throw”. From both a derivational and a semantic point of view, * ὄφημος / * ὀφήμιος is accounted for as a hypostasis of the phrase * ὀφ’ ἥματι / ἥματος ‘ over the projectile’, where the preposition indicates ‘ control’ or ‘ supervision’. According to this hypothesis, the ὀφημίαρχος was the leader of the * ὄφημοι or * ὀφήμιοι, originally the ‘ supervisors of the projectiles’, who probably were members of a group called * ὀφημία (Ionic * ὀφημίη).

Inscripties lezen

Abstract This contribution contains brief, introductory guidance on how to read Greek inscriptions. It discusses basic aspects of early Greek scripts, in particular the ‘light-blue’ alphabet of Athens as it was in use until the end of the 5th century BCE. Also included are sections on scriptio continua, punctuation, and numericals. Furthermore, some information is offered on spelling, phonology, morphology and syntax. Finally, the discourse units of a prototypical Athenian decree are analysed and related to underlying political procedures.

Classification of the Sciences in Greco-Roman Antiquity

A review is undertaken of the contributions of 38 classical authors, from Pythagoras in the 6th century BCE to Isidore in the 6th century CE, to the classification of the sciences. Such classifications include some that are more theoretical in function, some that are more practical (e.g., encyclopedic, bibliographic, or curricular). The emergence of the quadrivium and trivium is charted; the Greek concept of “enkýklios paideía” and the Latin term “artēs liberales” are defined; and the ways in which the form, content, and function of science classifications change during this period are assessed.

Classification of the Sciences in Greco-Roman Antiquity

A review is undertaken of the contributions of 38 classical authors, from Pythagoras in the 6th century BCE to Isidore in the 6th century CE, to the classification of the sciences. Such classifications include some that are more theoretical in function, some that are more practical (e.g., encyclopedic, bibliographic, or curricular). The emergence of the quadrivium and trivium is charted; the Greek concept of “enkýklios paideía” and the Latin term “artēs liberales” are defined; and the ways in which the form, content, and function of science classifications change during this period are assessed.

Основание Картхадашта в Северной Африке. К проблеме изучения хронологии древней истории Карфагена

The author of the article tries to connect the observation of economic and trade relations developed by the Phoenicians in the western part of the Mediterranean with a reflection on the situation in which the Levant countries found themselves. It is known that in the period in which the founding of Carthage can be hypothetically located, the Phoenician centers were under political, economic and military pressure – mainly from Assyria – although other powers, such as Damascus, cannot be ruled out. On the other hand, however, it is known that, for example, in German science the lack of a founding act of Carthage in North Africa was emphasized, and the archaeological traces left in this territory seem insufficient to reconcile conventional literary relations with the founding of Carthage at the end of the 9th century BC. The intention of this article is an attempt to show the issues on the basis of which one should consider the reinterpretation of the events reported as the context of the founding of Carthage. This procedure would serve to revise the existing findings of science on the chronology of the founding of Qarthadasht and could, consequently, contribute to showing that the founding of Carthage fell on a later period - i.e. the end of the 8th or the beginning of the 7th century BCE.

기원전 “긴 6세기” 우룩 에안나(Eanna)신전 문서로 본 농업 관련 직업적 실수와 범죄 그리고 처벌

This paper aims to examine professional faults and crimes in agricultural sector and their punishments based on documents from the Eanna Temple archive in Uruk from the long 6th century BCE. Eanna Temple punished transgressors according to the categories of faults and crimes in the agricultural sector. Their punishments were not differentiated according to different criminal social statutes; generally the same transgressions were punished in the same way. Commonly, professional faults were not punished severely, and the temple asked the perpetrator to simply pay compensation. However, a crime that was committed with bad intentions was punished more severely. We found that there were some exceptional cases. These faults and crimes were not punished according to general rules. These cases show that if the temple needed to apply an exceptional rule that did not previously existed, the temple authority had to or preferred to create a document in order to determine the punishment in these specific cases before the punishment’s application.

Gli animali nelle stele votive punico-romane del Nord Africa relative al culto di Baal Hammon/Saturno (V sec. a.C. - IV sec. d.C.): introduzione al catalogo

This paper presents a digital catalogue of the animals represented on the North Africans votive stele dedicated to Baal Hammon/Saturn. This catalogue consists of approximately 1500 stelae dated between the 5th century BCE and the 4th century CE. It is now available as a spreadsheet on the download page of this article.

A LIVING SHIPWRECK: An integrated three-dimensional analysis for the understanding of site formation processes in archaeological shipwreck sites

Since the birth of maritime archaeology in the mid-twentieth century, shipwreck archaeology has occupied a predominant role in the research undertaken in the field. Shipwreck sites have enabled further understanding of shipbuilding technologies and traditions, trade routes and traded goods, as well as life on board ancient vessels. Excavating, interpreting and preserving underwater sites is a complex endeavour that requires the analysis of multiple aspects, not least the environmental and biological characteristics affecting the site and the archaeological record. Wreck site formation processes (WSFPs) theory has been extensively employed in the approach to the excavation, documentation and interpretation of archaeological shipwreck sites, since its inception by Keith Muckelroy in 1978. WSFPs allow to better understand the preserved archaeological record and to clarify the course of events which have affected the shipwreck site in the full extent of its archaeological context. The present paper aims to present an innovative approach to better understanding these processes. Employing a multidisciplinary approach, the research has used three-dimensional recording and modelling techniques, together with archaeological and biological data, in order to model the amphora cargo mound of the 4th century BCE Mazotos shipwreck (Cyprus). 3D photogrammetric models of the shipwreck site have been paired with the 3D photogrammetric models of the lifted amphorae bearing sediment and biogenic horizons marks on their walls, in order to attempt a reconstruction of the environment and sedimentation processes at the site. While the combination of the 3D site and amphora reconstructions allow to create a model frozen in time (i.e. the time of excavation), the sedimentation and biological information adds to the model the fourth dimension (time), shedding light on the natural SFP dynamics that have affected the site. The sediment horizons and encrusting communities’ marks on the amphora surfaces account for dynamic processes of burial/exposure as well as artefacts dislocation, allowing to better characterize the initial model and better interpret the available archaeological record.

A Note on Olive Oil Production in Iron Age Philistia: Pressing the consensus

ABSTRACT In this paper we discuss two aspects of olive production in Philistia and the Shephelah during the Iron Age. Previous studies suggested that olive oil production became important in this region only in the 8th century bce centred at Tel Miqne-Ekron, and that the Kingdom of Judah was not involved in the production of olive oil in this region. Recent finds, at Tel Beth Shemesh and at Tell es-Safi/Gath, indicate that this narrative is in need of change. On the one hand, finds from Tell es-Safi/Gath show that production of olive oil was a central aspect in the agricultural production in this region already during the Iron I and Iron IIA. On the other hand, recent finds at Tel Beth Shemesh show that in the 7th century, the Kingdom of Judah was involved in the production of olive oil in the eastern Shephelah.

The Olynthus mill in the Alps: New hypotheses from two unidentified millstones discovered in Veneto region (Italy)

The archaeological collection at the Museum of Feltre (province of Belluno, Veneto region, Italy) includes fragments of two ancient millstones of type known as “Olynthus mill” or “hopper rubber”. The first one (from San Donato, in the municipality of Lamón) is mentioned in a number of published and unpublished works; the other (generally from Feltre) is new to archaeological literature. Until now, they had never been identified as specimens of the Olynthus mill.
 Following a brief introduction on this type of device (its technical features, origin and geographic distribution) and the main hypotheses concerning its diffusion in the Alps, the first part of this paper describes the two stones from Feltre: their dimensions, morphological features, raw material, etc. Consequently, this article will focus on the topographical areas where the stones were found and on their importance for understanding the diffusion of the Olynthus mill model in the Alpine region characterised by Raetic culture, which is still an unresolved problem. The sites of discovery of the two Olynthus mills (along with the places of origin of the other hopper rubbers found in the Veneto region and in the eastern part of the province of Trento) could suggest new working hypotheses about the provenance of this type of millstone and its introduction into the Raetic territory between 5th and 4th century BCE. More specifically, the Olynthus mill model might have been introduced into the Alps through the Piave and Brenta valleys and not the Adige valley as previously thought; the Olynthian-type mills from the Veneto region could therefore mark the stages of this south-north path rather than being mere outlying specimens of the Raetic area, or items exported from there.

Evolving Dharma Consciousness of Dharmaputra Yudhishthira within the Mahabharata

The objective of the paper to comprehend a deep implication of what dharma meant to Yudhishthira through the length of historical events related to war and philosophical questioning on the issue. He had to fight through so much in terms of pitting his intuitive understanding of dharma against a whole gamut of mundane ideas of what dharma stood for. For instance, his struggle with his brothers on the complexity of svadhrama and its rejoinder in form of sukshadharma or knowledge of subtle consciousness. His inner conflict continued and there came a time in the last parva, Svargarohana parva, when he just denounced dharma. It was through these trials and tribulations that Yudhishthira was finally able to evolve his own idea of what real truth, conduct, duty, morality and inner consciousness were about. In other words what was true dharma. Through this paper the author attempts to tease out complexities of the philosophical queries that bothered Yudhishthira and also trace his historical trajectory in the quest.
 The method of investigation would include historicizing the text. This means locating our source, the Mahabharata, on a time line and within a geographical expanse so that we get an idea when the logic of dharma mutated and in what particular region. The text had an expansive period of formulation right from the 8th Century BCE to 4th Century CE, that is, what we understand as the Gupta period. But the text had many later regional recensions as well. We are primarily looking at the older Sanskrit version of the text as recorded in V.S.Sukthankar edited Critical edition (Bhandarkar Oriental edition, Poona) of the Mahabharata. The exercise also requires reading of the magnum opus, locating the usage of the term in association with Yudhishthira and raising some significant issues. These may include queries such as what is dharma according to the Mahabharata. Is definition fixed or is it dynamic? Do all people speak of it with the same voice? Is the notion of dharma same for Yuthishthira and his Pandava brothers? Does his wife. Draupadi, subscribe to his idea of dharma? If his notion of dharma changes over time, does it have anything to do with changing consciousness of the society or at least some people within the society? Can we get a sense of a subtle move towards a shift from karma yoga to jnana yoga and finally to bhakti yoga? In this changing paradigm where do we locate the dharma philosophy of Dharmaputra Yudhishthira, especially as there comes a time when he himself begins questioning the idea of dharma? In a sense his character brings out the dilemmas arising out of the differences in meanings and approaches of comprehending the complexities associated with the concept of dharma.
 Another point of our methodology would be to understand the etymology of the term dharma and its location in the ancient language. The Sanskrit root of the word is dhr, 'to support', 'to sustain'. In other words, it means that whereby whatever lives, is sustained, upheld, supported. More often than not, the word dharma in its ancient usage denoted the moral realm in its widest sense, meaning both morality as an ideal— man's eternal quest for the good, the right, the just—as well as the given, actual framework of norms, rules, maxims, principles that guide human action. It was integral to the doctrine of purushartha or that of the four goals of a human being; these being artha (success/material possessions), kama (passion/procreation), dharma (virtue/religious duty), moksha (self-perfection). All the four are intertwined. Throughout the epic we witness the evolution of Yudhishthira’s notion of true dharma. What comes out strongly is his holding fast to the value of nonviolence (anrishṃsya), his identification with the sukshma or subtle nature of dharma, his insistence on constricted use of brute force as a part of Kshatriya dharma, his ultimate benevolence towards his family and people. These were actually revealed to be the cause of his indisputable success in Dharma’s recurrent tests. Somewhere by the end of the epic, Yudhishthira’s error in entering into the game of dice, getting in conflict with his brothers on the issue of his duty and not being able to answer Draupadi’s queries initially appear as stepping stones in self-realization to a deeper understanding of what dharma as duty, conduct, search for truth and morality were all about. The orderly world of dharma, which was so central to his character, was eventually arrived at only through repeated trials and tribulations