5th Century BCE Research Articles

The Emergence of Early Phoenicia

The transition from the Iron Age I to the Iron Age IIA during the 10th century BCE was a period of profound political and socio-economic transformations in the Levant. One of these developments was the emergence of early Phoenicia. In its course, Phoenicia emanated as an interface of international exchange connecting Mediterranean and continental economies of the Levant. This had a profound impact on the societies of the Southern Levant in general and ancient Israel in particular. Phoenician influence was not just marginal for the history of ancient Israel but developed into an integral component of Israelite economic and political history.

The 10th Century BCE in Judah: Archaeology and the Biblical Tradition

In the framework of the regional project in the Judean Shephelah, which started in 2007, four sites were investigated: Khirbet Qeiyafa, Khirbet el-Ra‘i, Socoh, and Lachish. The data for the 10th century is presented here together with the relevant biblical traditions. The data is analyzed according to an urban geography model and the gradual development and territorial expansion of the Kingdom of Judah is suggested.

The Study of the 10th Century BCE in the Early 21st Century CE: An Overview

This introduction presents a context for the collection of 15 articles published in the first volume of the new journal: Jerusalem Journal of Archaeology. These publications are the outcome of the conference on state formation processes in the 10th century BCE Levant

The Beth Shean Valley and its Vicinity in the 10th Century BCE

This article brings together results of archaeological explorations related to the 10th century BCE in the Beth Shean Valley, with emphasis on the excavations at Tel Beth Shean and Tel Reḥov. The evidence is evaluated in light of two transitions that occurred during this century: from the Iron Age I to the early Iron Age IIA and from the early Iron Age IIA to the late Iron Age IIA.

New Evidence for the 10th Century BCE at Tel Gezer

Recent excavations at Tel Gezer have systematically revealed a broad exposure west of the Iron Age gate complex (popularly referred to as the “Solomonic Gate”). This report focuses on the occupation layers of the 10th century BCE (our Strata 8 and 7, dated by 14C and ceramic analyses). Stratum 8 represents a unique period of Gezer’s history when the city experienced a major shift in urban planning, as evidenced by a monumental administrative building and casemate fortifications that are associated with the Iron Age gate. This city was intensely destroyed, probably as a result of Sheshonq’s campaign. Stratum 7, which was also destroyed, exhibits a major shift to domestic quarters.

Royal Architecture in the Iron Age Levant

In the Iron Age II, during the 10th to 6th centuries BCE, the local rulers of the Levant developed an elite style of architecture. The aim of this study is to define this phenomenon, summarize the data, and evaluate the appearance and distribution in the Levant of this architectural style. The six prominent characteristics of the royal style are recessed openings of doors and windows, rectangular roof beams, ashlar stone masonry, volute (proto-Aeolic) capitals, window balustrades, and decorated bases.

The Early Iron Age IIA Ceramic Assemblage from Khirbet al-Ra‘i

The early 10th-century BCE pottery assemblage from Khirbet al-Ra‘I is presented. The assemblage, which came from a few rooms that were suddenly destroyed, offers a large number of complete profiles. This is the second largest pottery assemblage, after that of Khirbet Qeiyafa, of this poorly known ceramic phase.

Empedocles’ Big Break

This paper endeavours to demonstrate that certain strands of ancient and modern cosmological thought are not as dissimilar as one might initially believe. In doing so, it will examine two accounts of the fundamental nature and origin of the universe – one put forward in the 5th century BCE by the Pre-Socratic Empedocles, and one favoured by a faction of 21st Century CE physical cosmologists. After said parallels are highlighted, there will be some speculation on how Empedocles may have arrived at such conclusions two and a half millennia ago, followed by a defence of him being classified only as an ancient poet.

A new chronology based on OSL and radiocarbon dating for the archaeological settlements of Vadnagar (western India) along with magnetic and isotopic imprints of cultural sediments

Vadnagar town of western India (North Gujarat) possess continuous human habitation record since ~2500 years. Owing to its rich cultural heritage, the town had been visited by Chinese pilgrims including Hiuen Tsang in 640 CE. Recent archaeological excavations at Vadnagar revealed continuous sequence of seven successive cultures from the Early historic (6th century BCE to 4th century BCE) period till present. From 2017 to 18 excavation seasons, ~18–20 m accumulation of cultural deposits were found at Ambaghat and Darbargarh localities. To complement and fortify the cultural chronology of these ancient cultural deposits, both conventional radiocarbon (C-14) and optically stimulated dating (OSL) methods were employed. Three C-14 and five OSL dates matched perfectly with the cultural ages of deposits and the entire cultural sequence spanned between 2nd century BCE to 6th century CE. Geochemical proxies (δ13C, δ 15N, C/N ratios) of excavated soil-sediments were measured to infer hydro-environmental conditions while soil magnetic parameters (χlf, χhf and χfd%) were measured to assess anthropogenic heating history. Average δ 13CTOC values of both trenches (−20.7 ± 3.5‰, −19.5 ± 3.5‰) indicated drier status of soil-sediments. Soil magnetic susceptibilities at lower and higher frequency ranges (χlf and χhf) varied in overlapping ranges i.e. 88.5 ± 43.1 and 121.4 ± 72.1 (10−8m3 kg−1) respectively, indicating the presence of super paramagnetic grains in the soil attributable to firing activities of soil-sediment. Average χfd% values (8.3 ± 1.1, 7.7 ± 2.0) indicate excavated soils undergone pedogenic processes.

CORR Insights®: People Prefer to Continue with Painful Activities Even if They Lead to Earlier Surgery.

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Phrourion and coins in central Sicily (6th-3rd Century BCE)

Since its appearance, the minted coin has been an indicator of Greek presence in the Ancient Mediterranean. Despite being a revolutionary notion in the economy of the ancient world, the adoption of the monetary system was not always unanimous, especially among indigenous peoples outside the Hellenic context. This dissension happened because coins, besides the intrinsic value in the metal of which they are made, carry symbolic values intimately linked to the society that produced them. The presence or absence of coins in certain archaeological contexts informs us of their reception among native communities. These objects, accepted by external consumers in adopting them to their everyday life or rituals, were thus also accepted in that they were given new meanings. The case of Sikan phrouria in central Sicily is quite interesting. The circulation of Greek coins was scarce in this territory. Its intensity, however, varied over time, and space. These differences allow us to observe the social changes that occurred in Sikan communities between the 6th and 3rd centuries BCE, as well as to understand coins as active agents in cultural transformation. The contextual material analysis carried out in this paper focuses on the different perceptions of Economy among Greeks and Sikans. The latter showed, in turn, a certain resistance to coins, favouring more traditional forms of exchange.

How did the dipole axis vary during the first millennium BCE? New data from West Europe and analysis of the directional global database

Despite progress in the knowledge of secular variation during the first millennium BCE in Europe, data coverage remains poor at the earliest periods, especially in some regions as in the Central Mediterranean area. This study presents three new directional and six new intensity data between the 13th and the 4th centuries BCE on archaeological kilns, pottery and baked clay fragments from South Italy and France. Archaeodirections were determined after thermal demagnetizations and archaeointensities using the Thellier-Thellier protocol with corrections for the anisotropy and cooling rate effects. The new data confirm the large deviation of the direction from a Geocentric Axial Dipole field, the high geomagnetic field strength and the fast secular variation observed in Europe during the earliest half of the first millennium BCE. Another characteristic of this period is a difference of ~25° between the longitudes of the virtual geomagnetic poles inferred from European and Middle East data. This unusual behaviour can be mainly related to the Levantine Iron Age anomaly (LIAA) and its expansion from the Middle East to Europe. However, the review of the global directional database shows that almost all virtual geomagnetic poles, 96% of them coming from Europe, the Middle East, East Asia, North America and Hawaii, are 10–25° away from the rotation axis towards North Russia between 1000 and 600 BCE. The calculation of a mean global VGP curve suggests that the North geomagnetic pole followed a clockwise motion during this period with a dipole tilt up to around 14°. This study shows that a dipole axis tilt may have played an important role in the rapid secular variation in western Eurasia, although part of this variation may also be related to non-dipole fields associated with the LIAA.

An Interpretation and Analysis on the Polychromy of Attic Korai from Votive and Funerary Contexts

The characteristic woman of Archaic Greek sculpture, the kore (pl. korai) stands proud, rigid, frontal, and omnisciently smirking at her viewer with the famous Archaic smile. She has been interpreted as an attendant, goddess, or deceased maiden, wearing representations of draped diaphanous robes, jewelry, and bearing offerings. Yet where her now clean marble surface exists once was intricately illuminated with vibrant pigments, inlaid stones, metals, and often accompanied by accessories of various materials. Recent advancements in analytical techniques have enabled scholars to delve deeper into the study of these sculptures, uncovering traces of pigments which would otherwise be left undetected. However, the image that these colours paint has yet to be thoroughly analysed and a history of intentional removal and surface cleaning has postponed a complete evaluation of the sculptures. In Attica, from the sixth to the early 5th century BCE, korai reflect stylistic progression and variation within and between archaeological contexts. A palette of colours was used to display features now lost to the modern eye. This paper examines the korai, proposing meaning through colour, patterns, and representations. Using polychrome reconstructions, spectral data, pottery, archaeological evidence, and ancient literary sources, the author interpreted the polychromy and decorative elements of Attic korai from votive and funerary contexts. Asking questions on symbolism, utility, cultural connection, and identity of the sculptures; this paper explains the use of pigments in relation to the symbolism of the sculptures and to their role in the greater framework of the Archaic Greek world.

Anthropogenic amplification of geomorphic processes along the Mediterranean coasts: A case-study from the Graeco-Roman town of Elea-Velia (Campania, Italy)

Coastal areas are very dynamic environments where natural and man-induced modifications often interact. This is the case of the Graeco-Roman town of Elea-Velia, along the Cilento coast of southern Italy. The town was founded in the 6th century BCE on a hilly promontory bounded by two profound gulfs and assumed a prominent role in maritime commercial routes in the Graeco-Roman period. It declined in the Late Antiquity and was abandoned in the Middle Ages also due to serious landscape changes. In this study, the integration of geomorphology, borehole stratigraphy and analysis of archaeo-stratigraphical trenches was used to detail the relationship between geological and archaeological evidence. The huge amount of collected data allowed providing chronological constraints to the landscape modification occurred before and after the town foundation. The main environmental changes consisted in enhanced coastal progradation and alluvial fan deposition that mainly affected the lower quarters of the town. The results of this study suggest that alluvial flooding was one of the main causes of the Elea-Velia decline and subsequent abandonment. The increasing disruption of slope stability was driven by the neglect in the management of the hillslopes behind the town during periods of social-economic crisis, but a concomitant climate forcing cannot be excluded. To the final abandonment also contributed the declining of harbour activities and the consequent decreased relevance of Elea-Velia as a maritime centre.

‘Dry’ electrochemistry: A non-invasive approach to the characterization of archaeological iron objects

A methodology for monitoring the corrosion state of archaeological iron objects using ‘dry’ open circuit potential (OCP) measurements is described. Application of this technique to a set of objects from La Bastida de les Alcusses archaeological site (Moixent, València, Spain), dating back to the 4th century BCE, reveals significant differences depending on the conservation state. The transient OCP responses (which last between a few seconds and 10–15 min) were superimposed with much shorter (less than one second) intense features.

The laughing sage: Chinese and western perspectives

This article attempts to shed light on the cultural understanding of laughter in the East and in the West. More specifically, it introduces the sages who take laughter as their signature both in China and in Europe and identifies the understanding of laughter as a qualification of wisdom in different cultures. In China, the earliest model is the Daoist sage, whilst in the West it is the 5th century BCE atomist philosopher, Democritus, later nicknamed the Laughing Philosopher. The Chinese ideal of the laughing sage had a more widespread influence than the Western ideal, through its endorsement by Chinese Buddhism, and the latter’s influence both on Tibetan Buddhism and Japanese Zen Buddhism, combined with the Western interest in Daoism, Buddhism and Zen. In contradistinction, the legend of the laughing philosopher would remain mostly cooped in Europe and travelled little. However, as with the laughing Buddhas and the Zen laughing monks, who bring Daoist influence to religion and to art, Democritus’s influence within Europe will be palatable not only in philosophy, but also in religion, literature, and iconography. In what follows, I elaborate first on the laughing philosopher, epitomized in the West by the legend of the sage Democritus and on additional Western sources of laughter. I then turn to Chinese philosophy, and explain how the laughing sages of Daoism influenced Chinese or Ch’an Buddhism, which gave rise to the significant role of laughter in Zen Buddhism. I conclude with some cultural differences, which are transcended by the role of laughter in securing and restoring health in both the East and the West and especially by the commonalities of the human condition.

Female with Ankylosing Spondylitis from the 7th–6th century BCE Lori Berd burial (Armenia)

A female skeleton from the Lori Berd archaeological cemetery, located near the city of Stepanavan (Lori Province of Armenia) is described. Palaeopathological analysis revealed a variety pathology (ankylosis of the sacroiliac joints, ankylosis of the vertebrae, syndesmophytes, ankylosed of the costovertebral and costotransverse joint fusions, kyphosis, lordosis, fracture of the anterior inferior iliac spine and traumatic lesions). This paper reports a new case of ankylosing spondylitis in a skeleton and a differential diagnosis performed to determine the etiology of the condition. The vertebral bodies remodel and together with the associated syndesmophytes form a continuous, smooth bone surface that is sometimes referred to as “bamboo spine”. In this skeleton changes in the spine, ribs, the sacrum, acetabulum, head of the femur and greater trochanter, as well as the anterior inferior iliac spine are typical of ankylosing spondylitis in advanced stage. Addtionally, there were signs of a traumatic death with injuries sustained to the scapula and vertebra. Using osteological markers in combination with the reconstruction of the archaeological context, the burial pattern suggests that the pathology the female suffered was likely due to her physical deficiencies.

Ancient Spring Tunnels of Jerusalem, Israel: Physical, Spatial, and Human Aspects

ABSTRACT About 210 spring tunnels were developed in Israel, most of them within its central mountain range and especially in the Jerusalem Hills. This phenomenon probably first appeared in Israel during Iron Age II, around the 8th century BCE. Spring tunnels are associated with the development of irrigated agricultural systems, landscape design and the establishment of rural settlements. This study presents for the first time a comprehensive statistical picture of this phenomenon, with particularly emphasis on the Jerusalem Hills. We have analysed statistically 21 different parameters of two types of springs in the Jerusalem Hills: 70 with tunnels and 60 without tunnels. The selected parameters fall into three categories: (1) geological-geomorphological (formation, surface slope and group, dip); (2) physical-hydrological (precipitation, discharge, etc.); (3) spatial (dispersion, springs elevation ASL, etc.). The results of this study emphasise the spatial aspects of this phenomenon, especially the accessibility to the Old City of Jerusalem. In addition, there is a clear connection between the karstic aquifer overlying the Moza geological formation and the spring tunnels. This study highlights the physical advantages of Jerusalem’s hinterland at the eastern sections of the Soreq and Refaim river basins, consistent with the rich archaeological record in these areas.

On the Archaeology of 10th Century bce Israel and the Idea of the ‘State’

ABSTRACT The State has long been the dominant socio-political concept in the scholarly debate over the biblical early monarchy in Israel and the archaeology of the 10th century bce. It has been assumed that if Israel had indeed become a kingdom already at this time that it would have adhered to the form of a State as conceived in modern scholarship, and that the material correlates of the State would appear in the archaeological record. This essay argues that this is a methodologically false approach and that the concept of the State is quite inappropriate to the context of socio-political relations in the ancient Near East on a theoretical and conceptual level. As such, the search for archaeological correlates to a State in 10th century Israel is an unnecessary one. Instead, the question of socio-political form can be approach emically from within Israel’s context, beginning with the native concepts and terminology that actually appear in the Hebrew Bible, which can then be linked to larger patterns of socio-political organisation in the Near East and to sociological conceptualisations, namely Max Weber’s idea of household-based patrimonial structure.

Bulletin Board: 50 Years of International Symposia on Electrets from 1967 to 2017—A Global History

The prehistory of electrets is not known yet, but it is quite likely that the electrostatic charging behavior of amber (Greek: τò ηλεκτρoν, i.e., “electron”) already was familiar to people in ancient cultures (China, Egypt, Greece, etc.), before the Greek philosopher and scientist Thales of Miletus (6th century BCE)-or rather his disciples and followers-reported it in writing (cf. Figure 1). More than two millennia later, William Gilbert (1544–1603), the physician of Queen Elizabeth I, coined the term “electric” in his book De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure (1600) for dielectric materials that attract like amber and that included sulfur and glass [1]. The second half of the 18th century saw the invention of the electrophorus or electrophore [2], a capacitive electret device, in 1762 by Johan Carl Wilcke (1732–1796).