4th Century BC Research Articles

Droga Herbaty. Część I

The aim of the article is to point out that the numerous cultural behaviours — usually those of secular nature — which in Japanese culture fall into the category of chadō (its sense seems to be best conveyed precisely by the notion of the “Way of Tea”) are largely a manifestation of putting the Buddhist philosophy into practice. In this tale of Buddhism through a symbol, that is tea, an important element is also the notion of “Zen,” which should be linked to the form of Buddhism rooted in Japan and known as Zen Buddhism.
 The strategy used to illustrate the problem in question is to introduce and discuss successive concepts, figures or cultural texts that are inextricably linked to Japanese tea culture and that clearly correspond to the many dimensions of Buddhist thought, which originated in India around the 6th century BC. One of the dimensions of this thought is the law of interdependent emergence, which, finding its expression in chadō, not only serves to celebrate culturally established behaviours, but sensitises those following the Way of Tea to their cognitive capacities, which — according to this law — never depend solely on the subject or the method used.
 The article is divided into two parts. The first contains an introduction, information about the literature and discussion of categories associated with chadō and described by means of terms like “master,” “roji,” “emptiness” and “tokonoma.” In the second part, the categories discussed are those of “host and guest,” “four noble truths” and “suchness.” The second part of the article also includes a conclusion.

An Investigation of Tragedy Theory through Ingeborg Bachmann’s Play "The Good God of Manhattan"

Tragedyanın bir tiyatro biçimi olarak tespit edilişi Aristoteles’in Poetika’sıyla başlar, ancak trajedi teorisi Poetika’nın yazıldığı M.Ö. 4.yy’dan bugüne gelen süreçte büyük oranda değişmiş ve dönüşmüştür. Söz konusu dönüşüm, tragedyanın biçimsel özellikleri kadar trajik olanın kavramsal karşılığı ile de ilintilidir. Bu çalışmada, tragedyanın öz’sel nitelikleri ile bunların modern trajedi teorisindeki yeri, Ingeborg Bachmann’ın “Manhattan’ın İyi Tanrısı” adlı oyun metni üzerinden araştırılmıştır. Bunun için öncelikle, tragedyayı oluşturan temel öğeler, bu öğelerin kurgulanış biçimleri ve trajik olanın anlam bağlamı incelenmiştir. Ardından, trajedi teorisinin geçirdiği modernist evrim ve bunun sonucu olarak yaşanan anlam çoğullaşması mercek altına alınmıştır. Antik trajedi ile modern trajedi arasındaki belirgin farklılıkların bulgulanması ile trajik olanın trajedi teorisindeki karşılığının anlaşılmasına çalışılmıştır. Son olarak ise, Manhattan’ın İyi Tanrısı oyunu elde edilen bilgi ve bulgular doğrultusunda incelemeye alınmıştır. Böylelikle, metnin hem antik trajedi ile hem de modern trajedi ile ilintisi saptanabilmiştir. Metnin biçimsel öğeleri ile kavramsal katmanları trajedi teorisi üzerinden irdelenerek, oyunun tür bazındaki tespiti gerçekleştirilmiştir. Sonuç olarak; hem Manhattan’ın İyi Tanrısı oyununun trajedi teorisi içindeki yeri ve konumunu anlaşılır hale getirmek, hem de bir tiyatro biçimi olarak trajedinin belirleyici niteliklerini açığa çıkarmak amaçlanmıştır.

The Mitochondrial Origins of the Hellenistic Individuals of Ayasuluk Hill

Objective: The present study aimed to extract ancient DNA from the remains of three individuals from the 4th century BC in order to determine the haplogroups through a mitochondrial DNA study, thus providing information about Anatolian migrations in ancient times. Materials and Methods: For this purpose, the study examined the remains of three bodies found at the bottom of the city walls from the archeological excavations between 2007-2008 and dated to the 4th century BC. After taking anthropometric measurements, the study examined the mitochondrial HVR1 and HVR2 regions by using Sanger sequencing and then used online programs to evaluate the data from the sequencing. Results: As a result of the study, death due to a possible injury from a sharp object was observed on the right femur of one of the three individuals. The maternal haplogroups of the individuals were determined to belong to the T2b group of European origin. Conclusion: The present study obtained genetic information regarding three individuals found at the bottom of the ancient city walls on Ayasuluk Hill. These results will provide important information about the commander of the ruins found on the walls of the Ayasuluk Hill of the ancient city of Ephesus, which constantly changed hands during the Wars of the Diadochi.

Hidden landscapes of the Earliest Iron Age: Excavations at Kakliniškės 7 reveal an overlooked settlement phase in southern Lithuania

The article presents the data from Kakliniškės 7 settlement site, discovered and excavated in 2020 during the construction of the gas pipeline. The rich and representative collection of pottery and archaeobotanical material gathered in the site have provided valuable data on the hitherto unknown 4th century BC in Lithuania. Pottery such as that found at Kakliniškės 7 has not previously been identified, and is therefore referred to here as Kakliniškės Ware. These are pots with slightly curved walls, rounded shoulders and vertical rims, featuring a striated surface topped with an additional coarse layer. The defined attributes of this new type of pottery have allowed the identification of the same ware in other settlement and burial sites in southeastern Lithuania and the Trans-Nemunas region. All of these settlement sites share some common features; most likely they are the sites of short-lived farmsteads belonging to highly dispersed settlements. Such data allow us to hypothesise a hitherto unidentified cultural group that briefly spread in southern Lithuania in the 4th century BC. This challenges the prevailing model of a static cultural development and a homogeneous material culture in the 1st millennium BC in all of eastern Lithuania. Our data show that the cultural situation here was much more dynamic than previously thought.

REICHE FRAUENGRÄBER DES 1. JAHRTAUSENDS V. CHR. IN SÜDWESTDEUTSCHLAND

Rich female graves in southwestern Germany are only recognisable archaeologically from about 600 B.C. onwards. During the Urnfield Culture and the Hallstatt C phase, male burials predominate among the rich graves. The earliest known female graves from the Western Hallstatt Culture to contain gold artefacts come from burial mounds 4 and 2 of the Bettelbühl cemetery near the Heuneburg. Furthermore, the discovery of tumulus 4, which contained a "princess grave" and the burial of a small girl, indicates that social rank and status at the Heuneburg were hereditary by at least the early 6th century BC.
 The female graves of the Bettelbühl necropolis represent the start of an early Celtic tradition which last for more than 250 years. One of the last examples of this tradition being the grave from Waldalgesheim, which dates to the decades around 300 BC. From the middle of the 2nd century BC onwards rich female graves are only sporadically attested in southwestern Germany.
 The rich female graves of Southwest Germany may be interpreted as representing members of an emerging aristocratic ruling class. The social importance and power of some women, which is attested archaeologically, was probably based on a matrilineal kinship or inheritance system. The archaeological sources indicate that these prominent women also held political and religious offices, and exercised power in their own right.

Cypraea Moneta (Cowry) Shells in Archaeological Sites of Eastern Europe: Spread, Classification, Use (8th Сentury BC – 7th Century AD)

The paper publishes information about finds of Cypraea moneta (cowry) shells in archaeological sites of Eastern Europe of the VIII century BC – 7th century AD. There are 4 time periods during which cowry shells were distributed in Eastern European territories: 1. 8th – 6th centuries BC; 2. 5th – 1st centuries BC; 3. 11st– 5th centuries AD; 4. 6th – 7th centuries AD. Later the territorial (from Dniester region to the Kama region) and quantitative diversity of archaeological sites on which Cypraea moneta shells were found increased. They were of great value in the life of ancient Eurasian tribes. The proof of this is the variability of their use by local tribes. Cowry shells had both sacred and utilitarian uses. In the first case, they were used as amulets against the evil eye and maleficium. In everyday life cowries used as jewelry. They were sewn on women's dresses and headdresses, on the burial curtains, and were used as pendants for necklaces, bracelets and knives.

ANIMAL ECONOMY AND CONSUMPTION AT THE ADMINISTRATION SECTOR OF HITTITE CAPITAL ŠAPİNUWA

During the excavations carried out in Ortaköy-apinuva, another capital city of the Hittites, a large number of animal bones were found along with other find groups. Although it is understood that most of the bones in question represent the food waste of the city, the remains of sacrifices were also unearthed. This article aims to explain the livestock economy and consumption patterns of the city through a bone group recovered from the excavation area of the Tepelerarasi Region G Area. The area represents a metal workshop dating to the 14th century BC. The group of materials recovered from this area, called Workshop I, is not insitu. It is thought that after the workshop lost its function, it was filled with debris, which was brought from other sectors of the city for flatteing the terrain and described as the waste of the city. The results of our analysis showed that animal consumption is based on sheep and goats. Cattle are found in a very low numbers of mostly young individuals. Pig and few other species are minimally represented in the bone assemblage. While the mortality profile of cattle is dominated by young animals, those of sheep and goat show evidence fort he use of secondry products whilst also point to a meat provision strategy.

La nascita e lo sviluppo del nesso tryphé-decadenza nella storiografia ellenistica

In the 4th century BC Greek historiography abandons the monographic genre to propose a general interpretation of history: a possible interpretative key is that of tryphé, excessive luxury that corrupts and leads to an unstoppable decadence cities, peoples and states. The first theoretical elaboration of the tryphé-decadence nexus occurs in the historiographical work of Ephorus of Cyme and Timaeus of Tauromenium. In later Greek historiography, however, the concept of tryphé remains in most cases connected to a moral judgment, without becoming a true criterion of historical interpretation. And if in this sense it has been too often interpreted by the moderns, this is probably due to the influence on them exerted by the Roman historiography. In it the equivalent of tryphé can be considered the luxuria, understood as corrupting luxury, which since the 2nd century BC would lead to a progressive weakening of Rome and that in the historiographic production sees an insistent connection between the social ethics, precisely corrupt, and the political decadence.

THE TRACES OF THE EARLY IRON AGE AT AMOS

In this study, the evidence of the Early Iron Age obtained by the recent excavations carried out at Amos will be
 discussed. Amos located on the northeastern coast of Karia Chersonesos (Bozburun Peninsula), on the Asarcık Hill.
 Amos firstly appeared in the historical records by the 5th century BC. Amos, as a member of the Delian League, was
 recorded on the Athenian Tribute Lists of 428 BC. Following the establishment of the Rhodes state in 408 BC, the
 city became part of the Rhodian Peraea (Incorporated Peraea) and continued this situation until the 2nd century AD.
 Amos, also led a koinon, was abandoned by the 3rd century BC. The only research in the city was carried out by G.
 E. Bean in 1948. In addition to the survey that have been going on since 2019, the excavations began in 2020 yielded
 the earliest evidence of Amos. Up to the present, the earliest archaeological finds of Amos were from the 6th century
 BC. In the excavations carried out in the temple on the acropolis in 2021, some traces of the Early Iron Age were
 found. The remains of an apsidal building dated to the 10th century BC were found below the temple. Furthermore,
 outside the edifice a pyre (cremation area) associated with the building was found. After the secondary cremation,
 the intramural burial was placed under the floor of the structure. The first one of the two burials was placed in a belly
 amphora, the other into a necked amphora. Among the two urns, the necked amphora is decorated with concentric
 circles, while the belly amphora is a coarse ware. A bow fibula was found along with these amphorae as well.
 According to the widely view regarding the burial customs of the period, belly amphorae were preferred for women
 and necked amphorae for men. The apsidal building where a couple as an intramural burial in, must have belonged
 to a chief owing to a similar one in Lefkandi. It is possible to date the evidence at Amos from the Early Iron Age to
 the 10th century BC.

Popluna: una dea sidicina in vesti greche

In the territory of ancient Teanum, the sanctuaries of Fondo Ruozzo and località Loreto have returned in fragmentary form two cult statues which, at a distance of fifty years between them, offer different images of the Sidician goddess Popluna. In Fondo Ruozzo Popluna is represented as a Greek goddess with a pig according to the Demeter model (late 6th century BC), in località Loreto as a standing figure with children on her shoulders according to the local model of the kourophoros (mid-5th century BC). The diversity of the two images is generally explained through the evolution of the Sidician culture towards an increasingly autonomous indigenous identity. In contrast to the interpretation of cultural phenomena in an ethnic perspective, the article explores the possibility that the representation of Popluna in Greek guise testifies the will of the Sidician élite to extend its network of relationships in the direction of the Tyrrhenian coast controlled by the powerful Hellenic city of Kyme.

Targeted radiocarbon dating of animal bones from ritual wetland depositions in early Iron Age (Denmark)

The biography and chronology of ritual wetland deposits of animal bones has proven difficult to establish and has been based on the study and typology of associated groups of objects (ceramics and weapons) deposited at the same site. As a result, animal bone deposits are often generalised and perceived in plural, even though several sites exhibit evidence of multiple, clearly separate deposits of individual animals or animal parts. To surmount these shortcomings, this study presents and discusses the results of targeted radiocarbon dating of animal bone depositions from a number of well-established ritual wetland sites dated to the early Iron Age within the area of present-day Denmark. The study includes 154 radiocarbon dates from 10 different sites. The results confirm that the biography of ritual animal bone depositions in wetland sites is highly complex and indicate that the use of wetlands during the early Iron Age for ritualized deposition of animal bones lasted for up to 800 years from the 4th – 5th century BC. The study also shows that domestic animal species were preferred over wild animals, and it confirms that some species may have held a special significance. It is further suggested that some animal species were deposited in wetland ritual depositions for a longer period of time than others, and that some wetland sites were in use through multiple centuries, whereas others were not. All in all, the study suggests a complex and dynamic use of wetlands and animals as part of early Iron Age ritual life.

A lekythos of the Beldam Painter in the collection of the National Museum of Transylvanian History

Among the numerous and varied Greek ceramic vessels in the heritage of the National Museum of Transylvanian History, there is an Attic lekythos with black figures, which arrived here when the Cluj museum took over the Numismatics and Antiquities Collection of the Transylvanian Museum. It is a large cylindrical lekythos with pattern decoration applied on a white background which, by all appearances, was produced in the workshop of the Athenian Beldam Painter. The workshop of the Beldam Painter was active in the second quarter of the 5th century BC and is considered the last group of quality black-figure vessels produced in Athens.

Orfické zlaté lístky

Orphic Gold Tablets.The Orphics (ὀρφικοί) were a religious movement originating sometime in the 7th–6th centuries BC in ancient Greece, but was gradually formed and evolved, adopting various elements from surrounding religious movements and cults. Its emergence was probably a result of various preconditions, but what is safely known is that it pioneered a so-called positive eschatology and offered the hope of afterlife communion with the heroes and gods. To affirm the hope of a positive afterlife, the dead were placed in their graves with golden petals on their chest or on their head, often in the shape of an ivy leaf, containing instruction on navigation in the underworld and how to get past its guardians to the coveted kingdom of Persephone. The texts also contained passwords that were supposed to ensure entry between the heroes and gods and meant a certain degree of deification of the dead. It is believed that sometime in the middle of his life – after the death of Socrates – even Plato himself joined this movement, and in his later works began to speak of the gods with greater respect and to elaborate more deeply on the fate of the soul after death. In his texts, some typical Orphic expressions appear. Orphism as a “revival movement” may also have had some influence on the formation of Christian eschatology. In any case, with its positive eschatology, it may have enabled the Christian mission to penetrate more effectively into the thought and beliefs of people of the time who, expected in their personal lives the positive eschatology that the Apostolic Church proclaimed and gradually completed.

THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF SAMARKAND IS IN SOME WRITTEN SOURCES

The ancient history of Samarkand is preserved in the written sources of many ancient historians, in the articles and books of many historians, and in archaeological sources. The oldest of such sources is the work called "Strabo's Geography" written in the 1st century BC, the events and events written in it, the mention of the name of the city of Samarkand dates back to the last quarter of the 4th century BC, to the period of Alexander the Great's march to Central Asia (329-327)

A Study of Myths, Facts and Figures on Prominence of Indian Vegetarianism: Past, Present and Future

Plants were the primary source of food for early humans. Hinduism and Jainism have consistently urged their devotees to continue with a vegan lifestyle. Supporters of the Orphic secrets were the principal individuals to expound on veggie-lover food in the 6th century BC. Pythagoras, a Greek rationalist, is believed to be the organizer behind moral vegetarianism. Several famous people followed the Pythagorean way of life, which affected vegetarian diets until the 19th century. During the Middle Ages, vegan food essentially quit being eaten in India. Various individuals decided to be veggie lovers during the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. In 1847, India was where the primary vegan culture was framed. In 1908, the International Vegetarian Society was begun, and in 1944, the leading veggie lover society was shaped. Sylvester Graham, John Harvey Kellogg, and Maximilian Bircher-Benner were all notable vegans during this time. Toward the beginning of the 21st hundred years, something changed. Scientists have disproved the old belief that vegetarianism leads to poor nutrition. Instead, they have shown that a vegetarian diet lowers the risk of most modern diseases. Today, vegetarian diets are becoming more popular and accepted all over the world.

Кочевники раннего железного века (IX–VII и VI–IV вв. до н. э.): сравнительный анализ по данным палеопатологии

Introduction. The paper reveals comparative analysis results of the anthropological nomads’ series of the Pre-Sauromat and Sauromat times, originating from under-kurgan burials of the Lower Volga region. Methods. The samples were compared regarding pathological abnormalities and stress markers frequencies found on the bone remains. Fourteen individuals’ remains were attributed to 9th – 7th centuries BC nomads. Twenty individuals’ remains were attributed to the Sauromate series of the 6th – early 4th centuries BC. The standard assessment program of palepathological conditions developed on the postcranial skeleton and skull was applied in the course of examination of the anthropological material. Analysis. As a result of the conducted study, it was established that there were no significant differences between the series when comparing frequencies of stress markers and pathological conditions occurrence. The studied groups are close to each other in terms of lifestyle regardless of cultural affiliation. Results. The series of Pre-Sauromat and Sauromat times is characterized by a specific pathological complex, which description is based on the anthropological materials of Early and Middle Bronze Age nomadic pastoralists, Sarmatians and nomads from the Lower Volga region of the late 13th – 14th centuries. The high level of traumatism found in groups testifies to the difficult social and political situation in the southern Russian steppes in the 9th – 4th centuries BC. The pre-Sauromat and Sauromat population recorded cases of unintentional lullaby deformation associated with traditions common in Central and Central Asia nomadic cultures of the 1st millennium BC.

Меотские вазы и леканы

The paper examines a small series of two-handled gray-clay vases and lekanes from the Maeotian sites of the Kuban region. All the vessels were made on rapidly rotating pottery wheels. Greek amphorae, found together with the vessels in the same burials, allow us to determine precise chronological framework for each complex and vessel type. The main common specific feature of the vases type is two vertical arched handles located on the rim. These vessels were produced under the influence of ancient pottery and come in two types: type 1 – on a high hollow pallet; type 2 – on a low ring pallet. Vases of type 1 date back to the end of the first quarter to the second quarter of the 4th century BC. The chronology of vases of the second type is limited to the end of the first quarter – the end of the 4th century BC. The two double-handled bowls that in details repeat the exact shape of the Greek lekane of the late 5th – early 4th century BC belong to a specific type of the studied tableware. The Maeotian lekanes come from burials of the first quarter of the 4th century BC. The established time frame of the gray-clay vases and lekanes of the Maeotian culture enables their use in determining chronology of the burials which contain no amphorae or other material suitable for precise dating.

Новая находка длинного скифского меча с золотой обкладкой рукояти

In 2019, a long iron sword with a golden hilt was found in a kurgan near the village of Vysochino, near the city of Azov. On the pommel of the sword hilt was a stylized image of a bird of prey. This type of sword was named the Solokha type, after the first find in the Solokha mound. The published find is confidently dated by the five amphorae found in the burial to the early 4th century BC. Swords with eagle-headed finials appear as early as the 6th century BC in the Central Asian region. Here they are made in a realistic manner. In the 5th–4th centuries BC, this type of products penetrated into European Scythia. At the same time, realism is lost, images of bird heads are schematized. The characteristic detail of the image of a large round eye is lost. The pommel turns into a claw-like one. The change of the semantic meaning of the finial: in the archaic period of the Scythian culture, which had a phallic expression to an ornithomorphic one, indicates a change in ideological ideas. New ideas were brought with them by a new wave of migrants from Central Asia at the turn of the 6th–5th centuries BC.

LOCATION OF ANCIENT RIGHT BANK SETTLEMENTS OF KHOREZM

The article discusses the location of the settlements of the Khorezm Oasis on the right bank of antiquity, including the geographical location, location and stages of development of settlements, cities and fortresses in the Lower Amudarya basin from the end of the 5th century BC to the 4th century AD.

Коллекция амфор Краснодарского государственного историко-археологического музея-заповедника им. Е.Д. Фелицына: общий обзор

The Krasnodar Museum presents one of the largest amphora collections in the world. Materials from the Maeotian necropolises of the Region near the farms of Prikubanskiy, Lenin, the village of Starokorsunskaya, etc. are stored here. Almost half of the collection consists of vessels from the excavations of the Prikubansky necropolis – 324 amphorae and 101 complexes. Based on the analysis of imports (amphorae and black-glazed pottery) from the burials of this necropolis, we can talk about almost a twofold reduction in the supply of products to the settlement after the middle of the 4th century BC, with a tendency to further decline by the beginning of the 3rd century BC. The materials of the the Prikubanskiynecropolis are characterized by the absence of amphorae of Chios and Peparethos. The containers of these large production centers are represented by a minimum number in the second part of the Krasnodar collection, which includes 349 vessels originating from excavations at least 30 other archaeological sites of the Kuban Region. The existing individual Chios amphorae originate mainly from excavations on the Taman Peninsula. The article discusses several fragmented Chios amphorae with englyphic stamps “A”. At the same time, the Krasnodar collection contains a large number of amphorae of Hellenistic time (in particular Rhodes and the so-called “Prikubanskiy” series), which in other museums are represented by single copies. At the same time, stamped Rhodian vessels from Kuban Region give new, previously unknown combinations of names of eponyms and fabricants.