4th Century BC Research Articles

New evidence for Middle Bronze Age chronology from the Syro-Anatolian frontier

Dates differ by up to 150 years in the protracted debate around the chronology of the Middle Bronze Age Near East. Here, the authors present radiocarbon and ceramic evidence from destroyed buildings at Zincirli, Türkiye, that support the Middle Chronology. Ceramics from late Middle Bronze Age sites in Syria and Anatolia, and Bayesian modelling of 18 well-stratified radiocarbon samples from site destruction contexts attributable to Hittite king Ḫattusili I, indicate a date in the later seventeenth century BC. Since the Northern Levant connects the Mesopotamian and Eastern Mediterranean second-millennium BC chronologies, this evidence supports the convergence of these long-debated schemas, with implications for the start of the Late Bronze Age and the rise of empires.

Early Scythian Spearheads with a Socket

Spears were the second most widespread (after the bow and arrows) weapon of the Scythian warriors. Now more than 1,000 iron spearheads and shafts are known. Some spears were 3 m or more long, i.e. were combat weapons. Spears in Scythia, in contrast to the eastern nomads, the Sauro-Sarmatians and the Saka, were a popular weapon, among both ordinary warriors and the elite. Scythian spears, first of all, their tips, have been studied well. However, some of them have features that need to be explained. That is the presence of horizontal ridges around the ends of the sockets of the spearheads, which were not primarily intended for decoration. Few such tips have been found so far in the Ukrainian Forest-Steppe. They belong to the Scythian archaic period, and more precisely to the period from the second half of the 7th to the beginning of the 6th centuries BC. In author’s opinion, the ridges on spear sockets had a utilitarian purpose: they served to securely fasten tassels, possibly in the shape of horse tails, or special badges that were prototypes of future flags. A similar tradition arose among the nomads of Central Asia as early as the middle-second half of the 2nd millennium BC and then it had spread throughout the Eurasian region and during later periods. The spears with bunchuks in the shape of horse or wolf tails have undoubtedly experienced evolution: at first they were symbols of tribal and military unity, over time they began to play the role of a prestigious social marker – an attribute of military leaders of different levels. As a rule, notable Scythian warriors were buried in the graves where such spearheads were found. Apparently, spears with tassels indicate that their owners were the heads of certain military contingents. Given the synchronism of the mentioned burials with the period of the Scythian campaigns to the East, the appearance of similar spears with tassels among the Scythians due to the Assyrian influence cannot be ruled out. In any case, spears with tassels are attested on the reliefs of Assyria, although of an earlier time.

Barrow of the Early Saka Time Ulkensor

In 2020 on the shore of Lake Ulkensor (in the Burabay district of the Akmola region) a single barrow was discovered and then studied, there was a burial of the early Saka time. This paper presents an analysis of the results of a practical study of the obtained materials and their interpretation. The burial was performed in undercut, at the bottom there was a full skeleton of a man in an extended position, on his back, with his head oriented to the west with a deflection to the south. Accompanying goods are represented by a composite belt, a bronze dagger in a case with a chape, a grindstone, a quiver with bronze arrowheads, a whip, a antler clasp and an iron knife. The burial rite and set of items allow the authors to attribute the site to the Ulubai-Tasmola archaeological culture of Northern Kazakhstan and date it to the 7th–6th centuries BC. The most important archaeological find for the region is a composite belt, its details are made of antler (presumably, of deer antler). The shape and type of individual elements of this specific decoration, its decor and design features reflected the position of the owner on the social ladder and also find analogies in the Tasmola culture of Central Kazakhstan and in the circle of early Saka sites from the Urals to the Altai-Sayan.

«LYSISTRATA’S PHENOMENON»: NEW SENSES OF THE ANCIENT PLOT IN THE CONTEXT OF SOCIO–POLITICAL CRISES OF THE 21ST CENTURY

The Peloponnesian war and the crisis of the police system of the end of the 5th – beginning of the 4th century BC became the historical context and stage chronotope for Aristophanes’ comedies. The article explores the peculiarities of the formation of modern «Lysistrata» receptions, in particular in cinematography and journalism. The premises of the «Lysistrata’s phenomenon» emergence and their interconnections with the reinterpretation of the ancient heritage are examined. In the 21st century «Lysistrata» serves as the source for the formation of the new mythologems. In the first years of New Millennium the plot of the Aristophanes’ comedy was considered as purely comic, fantastic, or even absurd. We consider the year 2003rd and the global culture initiative «Lysistrata project» to be the starting point for the «Lysistrata’s phenomenon». After «Lysistrata project» and, especially, events in Liberia global media cultivated neo-mythological concept of Lysistrata as the embodiment of political sex-strikes. Such simplification led to changes in artistic reception of the play, which could be traced in the theatre adaptation of the first decade of the 21st century. Spike Lee’s «Chi-raq» brought back complexity and multiple dimensions of Aristophanes’ play – juxtaposition of modern Chicago and ancient Athens opened plenty of senses and allows new optics for modern classic’s reception and for classical text itself. The Old Greek comedy «Lysistrata» became the optimal artistic focal point for the comprehension of the problems of war, peace, political order, race, and gender conflicts. The «Lysistrata’s phenomenon» demands further discussion based on multidisciplinary approach.

Commerce and Trade between India and South East Asia since Time Immemorial (with particular reference to ASEAN Countries)

India's association with South East Asia dates back to the 6th century BC. The geographical proximity of these areas to the borders of India and favorable conditions for trade attracted the merchant class of India. Most of the countries in South East Asia are member countries of ASEAN. In order to establish economic, commercial and strategic relations with ASEAN countries, the Government of India launched the Look East Policy in the 1990s itself. India's Look East Policy An attempt to pursue a policy of active engagement with the countries of South East Asia. Establishing trade and economic relations with these countries was the focus of this policy. In 2014, Narendra Modi's government changed the name of Look East Policy to Act East Policy and expanded the scope of this policy. Apart from this policy, the annually summit has further strengthened the relations between India and South East Asia and made a different identity on the global stage. 2009 to 2022 import-export has increased every year in the trade sector of goods with these countries but very little progress has been made in the field of service and investment. India's trade balance with ASEAN countries has been unfavorable But ever since India withdrew from the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement(RCEP) the interest of the people of South East Asia towards India has decreased. India needs to respond to South East Asian concerns. It will raise Indian infulence in the region which is very much needed. It is also very important for India's national interest to resolve the current issues with ASEAN countries. Key words: ASEAN, Look East Policy, Import-Export, RCEP, Balance of Payment etc.

The Phenomenon of the “Golden Statue of a Man for Sacrifices to Heaven” in Xiongnu Culture

Purpose. The purpose of the work is to search for evidence of the “golden statue of a man for sacrifices to Heaven” existence in the material culture of the early Xiongnu for the subsequent interpretation of this phenomenon.Materials. To achieve this goal, the reports of Chinese historical records on the culture of the early Xiongnu, which contain references to the “golden statue of a person for sacrifices to Heaven” were analyzed. Information from the historical records was compared with archaeological materials of synchronous archaeological cultures with numerous gold items in the territory of Northern Eurasia. Basically, the comparison was made with the “golden culture” of the Sakas of Kazakhstan.Result. It has been established that the “golden statue of a person for sacrifices to Heaven” in the culture of the early Xiongnu did not imply a golden statue, similar to later statues of Buddha, but the tradition of the deceased rulers clothes decorating with gold implements in the process of the ritual exposure of the deceased body. This tradition is widely known from the materials of the Sakas culture of Kazakhstan as a rite of creating a “golden man”. It is suggested that this tradition was borrowed by the Xiongnu in the course of contacts with the Saka population of Kazakhstan in the 4th century BC and existed among the Xiongnu until the 2nd century BC. The contacts between the Xiongnu and the Scythian and Saka nomadic population of Central Asia are confirmed by the excavations materials from the Chikhertyn Zoo burial ground in Mongolia.Conclusion. As a result of the work carried out, it was possible to identify some material and spiritual culture features of the early Xiongnu (4th – 2nd centuries BC).

What Does ChatGPT Say: The DAO from Algorithmic Intelligence to Linguistic Intelligence

The well-known ancient Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu (老子) or Laozi (6th∼4th century BC during the Spring and Autumn period) started his classic Tao Teh Ching 《道德经》 or Dao De Jing (see Fig. 1) with six Chinese characters: “道(Dao)可(Ke)道(Dao)非(Fei)常(Chang)道(Dao)”, which has been traditionally interpreted as “道可道,非常道” or “The Dao that can be spoken is not the eternal Dao”. However, mordern archaeological discoveries in 1973 and 1993 at Changsha, Hunan, and Jingmen, Hubei, China, have respectively indicated a new, yet more natural and simple interpretation: “道,可道,非常道”, or “The Dao, The Speakable Dao, The Eternal Dao”.

Archaeometric research on decorated bricks of Tol-e Ajori monumental gate (6th century BC), Fars, Iran: New insight into the glazes

Archaeometric research on decorated bricks of Tol-e Ajori monumental gate (6th century BC), Fars, Iran: New insight into the glazes

춘천 중도 청동기시대 주거지군의 획기와 전개

The dwelling cluster of Jungdo-dong is largely divided into six stages and eight periodization. The period from the Stage I(11th century BC) to the Stage Ⅲ(9th century BC) in Jungdo-dong was characterized by a combination of raised band decoration pottery, doublerimmed vessel, and rounded bottom upright rimmed pottery; a small-sized plain pit hearth dwelling and a medium and large-sized stone-lined hearth dwelling are combined in the Stage I(11th century BC), a large-sized stone-lined hearth dwelling and a plain pit hearth dwelling in the Stage Ⅱ(10th century BC), and lastly a small-sized plain pit health dwelling in the Stage Ⅲ (9th century BC). In addition to the small-sized plain pit hearth dwelling and the rim perforation decorated pottery, mandolin-shaped bronze daggers, various stone daggers, stone spearheads, stone arrowheads, etc. are associated in the Stage Ⅳ-1 (6th century BC), but in the Stage Ⅳ-2(5th century BC), the compacted medium-sized clay surface, the plain pit hearth dwelling, and artifacts similar to those of the Stage Ⅳ-1 are associated.
 The compacted large-sized clay surface, the plain pit hearth dwelling, the rim perforation decorated pottery, etc. are combined in the Stage Ⅴ-1(4th century BC), the compacted middle-sized clay surface, the plain pit hearth dwelling, the rim perforation decorated pottery, the round attached-rim vessel, etc. in the Stage Ⅴ-2 (early to late 3rd century BC), and lastly the small-sized plain pit hearth, the hearth-free dwelling, the rim perforation decorated pottery, the round attached-rim vessel, etc. in the Stage Ⅵ(late 3rd century BC to mid 2nd century BC). The dwelling cluster of Jungdo-dong reached its peak in the Stage Ⅳ-2, which was clearly evident from the fact that the dwelling cluster in the Stage occupied 47% of the total area of Jungdodong.
 The small-sized dwelling cluster in the Stage I had the smallest proportion, which was associated with the dwelling left over from the seasonal and temporary economic activities of the raised band decoration pottery group.

Lipac – nalazi iz grobova finalnog bronzanog doba sjeverne Bosne

During the final stages of the Late Bronze Age (9th–8th century BC) the territory of northern Bosnia wascharacterised by remarkable cultural dynamics, visible primarily in the distribution of metal finds: weapons, tools,jewellery, and functional costume objects. A new type of funeral practice – inhumation – emerged here, with thisperhaps being an important factor in the formation and social stratification of communities living in this areaat the end of the Late Bronze Age and the beginning of the Early Iron Age. In this paper, a group of remarkableobjects is presented for the first time. The collection of chance finds from Lipac, near Doboj, consists of a groupof metal functional-decorative objects of high craftsmanship, and a smaller group of ceramic vessels, most likelyfound as part of a burial inventory dated to the early 8th century BC. In addition to basic information on thedistribution and chronological framework of certain pieces of ornaments themselves, the grave finds from Lipacprovide us with exceptional insight into possible local technological innovations and adaptations based on localtraditions, models and aesthetic criteria established among communities from this period. Objects in the gravecan be divided into two groups: objects related to food and drink, and bronze ornaments related to personal attire.

SCYTHIAN SETTLEMENTS ON THE PUTIVL PROMONTORIES

Twenty-six sites of the Early Iron Age are known in the middle flow of the Seim River. There are more than four dozen unfortified settlements here. They are located very close to the residential settlement, on the dunes in the floodplain, on the first promontories above the floodplain. Settlements within the modern city of Putivl are somewhat distinct. First of all, it is extremely difficult to ascertain their size. Powerful layers of later time are traced on them. Research is difficult because of the massive building-up of the city.
 Materials of the Scythian Age were found on six sites: Kopteva Gora settlement, Monastyrsky Cape, Kinder House settlement, Gorodok, Nikolskaya Gorka and Molokozavod settlement. The sites were discovered on three capes, one household pit on each. The cultural layer was preserved only within the Molokozavod.
 All settlements are located on the promontories. It is possible that some of them had fortifications in the Early Iron Age, which were destroyed tracelessly by the late reconstruction. The existence of a settlement on the cape of Nikolskaya Gorka is most probable. A lot of Scythian ceramics were found here. The Molokozavod settlement was probably synchronous, and it was a single complex together with the fortified site. Judging by the ceramics, it ought to be preliminarily dated to the 5th—4th century BC.
 Some settlements of Putivl Seim basin are located in pairs. One of them simultaneously remained uninhabited or unfinished. It is possible that such a pair of settlements existed within Putivl. Perhaps the uninhabited satellite of Nikolskaya Gorka was a hill-fort Gorodok.
 Six sites of the Scythian Age are considered within the modern Putivl. The conclusions made in the paper are no more than an assumption. This is primarily due to the paucity of material and the degree of preservation of monuments of the Early Iron Age. The most promising for future research are Nikolskaya Gorka and Molokozavod settlement. However, we can’t hope for significant results in the study of Early Iron Age antiquities on the territory of Putivl.

Archaeobotanical Evidence of Funerary Plant Offerings at the Southern Etrurian Necropolis of “Valle Santa nell’Agro Veientano” (Rome, Italy)

The present study concerns the archaeobotanical analysis of soil samples and vase fillings from Etruscan tombs from the Necropolis of “Valle Santa nell’Agro Veientano”, found along via di Boccea, north of Rome (Italy). While the site was in use between the Archaic and Late Roman Age, the studied vestibule tombs belong to the Etruscan necropolis (second half of the 6th – beginning of the 4th centuries BC). Archaeological data, based on the incineration rite and funerary equipment, suggest that these were used by one high-status family (or two) originally from Veio. Carpological analyses reveal the presence of food plants comprised of cereals, pulses and fruits. Furthermore, anthracological data give indications concerning the past environment, with a prevalence of deciduous and semi-deciduous oaks, accompanied by other taxa such as evergreen oaks, hornbeam, ash and Rosaceae Prunoideae. This is in accordance with the present-day vegetation of northern Latium. Finally, remains of synanthropic weeds (e.g., Asteraceae, Caryophyllaceae and Polygonaceae) suggest a heavily anthropized environment. This study represents a step forward in the understanding of the still under-explored human-plant interactions of Etruscans.

Analysis of Pigments from Decorated Antler or Bone Artifacts from the Early Iron Age Princely Burial Mounds in Jalžabet (NW Croatia)

During the Early Iron Age in Europe (EIA), the phenomenon of the Hallstatt culture enveloped a large portion of the European continent. Between the Atlantic Ocean and the River Danube, cultural groups can be roughly divided into two major regions: the Western and the Eastern Hallstatt circle. EIA finds made from organic material decorated with pigments are usually well-preserved only in specific conditions. A good example is the coloured textile found in the salt mines of the eponymous site Hallstatt (AT). Other examples are Scythian finds north and east of the Black Sea, far outside the Hallstatt culture area. This paper presents the results of the analysis of decorated artifacts made from bone or antlers from Jalžabet (NW Croatia). The artifacts were found in two princely burial mounds with incinerated remains: burial mound 1 (Gomila) and burial mound 2. The funerary monuments belong to the Eastern Hallstatt culture and date back to the middle of the 6th century BC, i.e., the end of the Ha D1 period. A group of scientists from Croatia and abroad performed several series of analyses on the selected bone or antler artifacts. The motifs on the artifacts were made by incisions and were filled with black pigment, and there are faint traces of red pigment on the surface. With the help of colourant analysis performed in Brussels and Zagreb (SEM-EDX, MRS, FT-IR), zooarchaeological taxonomic identification, and archaeological determination of a selected group of findings from Jalžabet, we have tried to answer several major questions. The most important question being: are the traces of pigments on artefacts deliberate decoration? If so, can we determine the composition of the paint? What kind of raw materials were used for the production of the artifacts? These questions are important because these kinds of EIA finds are rare and even more rarely analysed. New data would considerably expand our knowledge about the funeral rites of the most prominent members of the Hallstatt nobility in the Drava River valley and Central Europe. Taxonomically, the raw material from which the finds were made was identified to be antlers, probably from red deer (Cervus elaphus). Using methods for colourant analysis, we have successfully proven deliberate application of black paint based on carbon black as a pigment, probably in combination with terpenoid resin. Until now, this composition was only known from much later, Roman-period finds. Also, it was confirmed that the black paint on the artifacts from both burial mounds in Jalžabet is of the same composition. The red pigment on the finds has been identified as hematite. It is highly probable that the red surfaces were deliberate, painted decoration. The probability of extracting the raw material needed for the production of the red paint in the Jalžabet micro-region was also established and requires further research (bog iron ore). The archaeological analysis of the finds supports the idea of the use of various types of decorated plates as inlays, probably on furniture or other luxury everyday items. Smaller finds could have been used as utilitarian objects, parts of attire, and jewellery.

The Origins of Millet Cultivation (Panicum miliaceum and Setaria italica) along Iberia’s Mediterranean Area from the 13th to the 2nd Century BC

The introduction of the cultivation of millets (Panicum miliaceum and Setaria italica) along Iberia’s Mediterranean zone appears to stem from different origins which themselves hinged on their own specific historical developments. The earliest traces in the northeast, presumably of trans-Pyrenean origin, were brought to light in Bronze Age contexts (13th century BC) in Western Catalonia, notably in the Cinca River Valley. The different species of millets from southern and eastern Iberia, by contrast, come from later 10th–8th century BC contexts under Phoenician influence. Their expansion can be linked to the cultivation of fruit trees (vineyards and others) throughout the 9th–7th centuries BC. The cultivation of millets into the intermediate geographical zone between these two areas is difficult to characterise as it is not possible to identify either a northern or southern in-fluence. In any case, different types of millet saw a wide expansion from the 7th century BC onwards, especially in settlements in the hinterland of the colony of Emporion. This study thus focuses on the history of the cultivation of millets along Iberia’s Mediterranean zone from the Late Bronze Age to the Second Iron Age.

Vegetation History in Central Croatia from ~10,000 Cal BC to the Beginning of Common Era—Filling the Palaeoecological Gap for the Western Part of South-Eastern Europe (Western Balkans)

The aim of this study was to reconstruct the vegetation changes, fire history and local landscape dynamics of central Croatia (the western part of south-eastern Europe) from 9800 cal yr BP to the beginning of the Common Era. Pollen, non-pollen palynomorphs and charcoal were analysed for the first time in the aforementioned area by modern palynological methods. Three different assemblage (sub)zones were identified: “Pinus-Fagus-Quercetum mixtum” (Preboreal), “Fagus-Corylus” (Boreal) and “Alnus-Fagus” (Atlantic, Subboreal and older Subatlantic). Additionally, the oldest observation (~9800 cal yr BP) of beech pollen for continental Croatia was confirmed by radiocarbon dating. Our results indicated a possibly milder climate with less extreme temperatures and higher precipitation during the Preboreal chronozone, alongside intensive flooding, a transition from a mosaic of wetland/wet grassland communities to alder carr during the Boreal, and an unusually long multi-thousand-year period, the annual presence of alder on the mire itself. An increase in the number of secondary anthropogenic indicators can be tracked from the 6th century BC to the beginning of the Common Era. Although regional vegetation changes are insufficiently clear, our results fill a gap in the interpretation of vegetation/palaeoenvironmental changes before the Common Era in in this part of Europe.

The Graffiti Marking Polis Ownership from the Excavations of Olbian Agora in the 1960s and 1970s

Abstract The article publishes eleven graffiti from the Olbian Agora, marking pottery owned by the polis (Yu.G. Vinogradov has published photos of six objects). On one of the vessels the word πόλεως̣ is written in its full form, on the others it is represented by abbreviations ΠΟ and ΠΟΛΕ. The collection includes ten imported black-glazed vessels of Attic production (the location of four of them is currently unknown, the description is given on the basis of archival photos) and a red-slip fish dish, supposedly of local production. On the basis of the archaeological context, the typology of pottery and paleography, the graffiti can be dated to the first half of the 5th century BC.

The Most Western Find of a Chinese Mirror with T-shaped Hieroglyphs in Eurasia

Abstract The paper discusses the find of a Chinese mirror with T-shaped hieroglyphs, dated to the last third of the 5th–the first half of the 4th century BC and originating from a nomadic burial in the Southern Urals. This is not only the oldest find of a mirror of this type outside China, but also the most western find of a mirror of the Warring States Period in Eurasia. The chemical and technological characteristics of the mirror, studied with the help of scanning electron microscopy and metallography, demonstrate that they are close to the data given in the publications of mirrors from China and thus give no grounds for doubting the origin of the mirror.

The City Versus Its Suburb: The Spatial Development of Pontic Olbia

Abstract This article is devoted to the urban space of Pontic Olbia – to the growth of its territory, and the emergence of its early defensive system consisting of earthworks with moats, which had surrounded the city as early as the Late Archaic period. Conclusions are drawn about the role of the settlement structure in the western part of the city, which had earlier been interpreted as Herodotus’ proasteion, but which – in the light of discoveries made by a Ukrainian-German research project – has been recognised as an integral part of the city. The chronology of the mud-brick and stone fortifications erected no later than in the middle of the 4th century BC, before Olbia was besieged by Zopyrion in 331 BC, has been amended. This work has made it possible to propose a new diagram for Olbia’s spatial development in the Late Archaic and Classical periods.

An Archaeological View to the Mannaean Kingdom

The Mannaean Kingdom’s heartland is located south of Lake Urmia and north of Lake Zaribar in the Zagros Mountain in western Iran from the 9th to 6th centuries BC. Until recently, knowledge on the Mannaeans mostly came from Assyrian texts and, in rare cases, from Urartian inscriptions. In the last five decades, new findings from archaeological excavations and surveys have revealed other aspects of Mannaean material culture. Most of these excavations have been published in Iranian journals, which present summaries without clear methodologies or typologies. This article is an attempt at synthesizing recent publications on archaeological field studies, in some of which the author participated. The goal is document the state of knowledge of the Mannaean culture based on the results of recent archaeological excavations and to share a more articulate understanding of this kingdom with a larger audience.

“Modus Vivendi” of an Athenian (Attic) Citizen (on Aristophanes’ Comedies)

The paper shows how, based on selected texts by Aristophanes (5th — 4th centuries BC), a prominent representative of the ancient Attic comedy, it is possible to recreate the lifestyle (“modus vivendi”) of an Athenian (Attic) citizen. It is discussed that when solving the task, it is necessary to take into account what material to use, as well as how to build a narrative. It is noted that the proposed technique can also be applied to other comedies by Aristophanes (or the texts of other authors of the distant past — whether it be Antiquity, the Middle Ages or Modern Times), studied, for instance, in order to identify the characteristic features of one person or group of ones of a different social circle, to reconstruct individual or collective biographies.