4th Century AD Research Articles

BIRCHBARK LETTER FROM PEREYASLAVL RYAZANSKY

The corpus of texts on birch bark was replenished with another document found during excavations in the Kremlin of Pereyaslavl Ryazansky (modern Ryazan). The letter comes from the Vvedensky excavation site located in the southeastern part of the Kremlin. The stratigraphic dating of the find is the second half of the 15th century AD. Styluses and fragments of birchbark with drawings have already been found on the site. The letter was a piece of rolled birchbark with the upper and lower edges torn off centuries ago. The three surviving lines of the document produce a legible fragment of a literary text – a record of predictive meaning read under the year 6967 (1459) in ordinary paschal tables of the 15th century AD. The Ryazan birchbark letter is the clearest material evidence of the eschatological expectations that became widespread in Russian society in that period.

اسلام پر مستشرقین کے حملوں کی جہتیں

Orientalists refer to those non-Muslim intellectuals, whether they belong to East or West, whose aim is to gain possession of the sciences and arts of Muslims and raise objections to Islam. And to avenge the humiliating defeat at the hands of the Muslims in the crusades. And for this purpose, they have made the Quran, Sunnah, Hadith, Seerat and Islamic history as their special target and use different tactics to make them suspicious. The Isthiraq movement started in the 8th century AD. The majority of those who started this movement consisted of Monks and Priests in which there were those from the East and also from the West, this movement has been busy with its work for twelve hundred years. The main objective of this movement is to counter the threat of Islam.

GEOARCHAEOSITES FOR HERITAGE TOURISM PRODUCT OF KUALA MUDA DISTRICT, KEDAH, MALAYSIA

Archaeological research in the Kuala Muda district until 2022 has recorded three archaeological complexes that are still in-situ and can be visited by tourists. The archaeological evidence at Sungai Batu, Bukit Batu Pahat and Pengkalan Bujang Archaeological Complex which proves the existence of the Kedah Tua kingdom as the main trading location in the world. In order to obtain primary data, field research such as surveys, mapping and archaeological excavations are carried out to obtain in-situ data. The results of the study revealed that the Sungai Batu Archaeological Complex has been used as an iron smelting industrial area since 788 BC while the Bukit Batu Pahat and Pengkalan Bujang Archaeological Complexes have been used as a port and a Hindu-Buddhist complex since the 7th Century AD to the 13th Century AD. Based on the uniqueness of the archaeological data in the complex, as many as five tourism packages have been created to preserve this archaeological heritage tourism with the Sungai Batu Archaeological Complex (SBAC) has been made as a one stop center for the management of the tourism package.

Yellow Pottery in the Late Avar Period

Review article of PhD thesis submitted in 2022 to the Archaeological Doctoral Programme, Doctoral School of History, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest under the supervision of Takács Miklós.In her PhD dissertation, the author surveyed the yellow pottery finds of the Late Avar Period, collecting 1,032 fragments and complete vessels from 232 archaeological features. The term yellow pottery as a terminus technique refers to a pottery type characterised by a very diverse material composition, production method, shape, and decoration set.The related find material was classified into the following ‘functional’ types: 1. mug with a handle, 2. mug without a handle, 3. bottle, 4. kettle (spouted jug), 5. jug, 6. beaker, 7. bowl, 8. pot, 9. pitcher, 10. flat bottle (flask), and 11. amphora-like vessel.Workshops producing yellow pottery could be located in the close surroundings of Szekszárd (so-called Danube workshop circle), at the estuary of the Körös River, and in the outskirts of Hódmezővásárhely (so-called Tisza workshop circle). Yellow pottery from these workshops was (probably) transported on roads, the lines of which mostly matched the Roman and medieval ones.The Danube workshop circle started to produce yellow pottery at the start of the Late Avar Period. The Tisza workshop circle most likely started to operate in the third phase of the Late Avar Period (second part of the 8th century AD). Both workshops remained in business until the first half or the second third of the 9th century AD.

Assessment of Potential Inscription of Wadi El-Natroun Monasteries in World Heritage List and the Possibilities of Development its Religious and Heritage Tourism

Objectives: The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the tourism potentials of the site of Wadī el-Natroun monasteries in Egypt, which holds religious and historical significance. Currently, only four monasteries remain intact: St. Macarius, Anba Bishoi (or Bishoy), Baramus and Surian. They date back to the 4th and 5th centuries AD when monasticism was initiated in Egypt. These monasteries comprise valuable artistic treasures such as icons, murals, manuscripts, unique books, etc. Additionally, the area holds importance as it is part of The Holy Family Journey in Egypt, with the desert of Scété in Wadi el-Natroun playing a role. The Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities has made several efforts to nominate this site for inclusion on UNESCO's World Heritage list.
 Methodos: The study employed various approaches, with the most important being historical and descriptive analytical approaches. Field studies were conducted to assess the cultural heritage of Wadi El-Natroun Monasteries according to UNESCO's criteria.
 Results :The study revealed the outstanding universal value of both the monasteries and the contiguous area. However, there are threats jeopardizing the site, such as some lakes drying up as a result of pollution and waste disposal.
 Conclusions: The study concludes that inscribing Wadi El-Natroun Monasteries on the World Heritage List would significantly increase international and local tourism interest in the site, preserve it, and attract a greater number of visitors. This would contribute to the development of the local community by improving the area and increasing the number of tourists.

남한 강단사학계 가야사 연구 비판

In the 19th century, with the rise of the theory of Korea in Japan, the theory of invasion first created under the name of so-called modern history is the Imna-Japanese theory. It is a claim that Yamatowa ruled or managed the southern part of the Korean Peninsula based on Gaya in the southern part of the Korean peninsula from the 4th to the 6th century AD. It is an antihumanitarian invasion theory advocated by imperialist historians based on exaggerated, embellished, fabricated, and distorted articles in 『Nihon Shoki』 compiled in the 8th century. The ideology of Yamatowa, which sought to realize the ruling system with the emperor as the apex, is contained in the Imna Nihon Headquarters Theory, which is still adhered to by most of the academic circles of Japanese ancient history. In 1945, with the collapse of the Japanese Empire, the arguments that should have been liquidated were compiled in 『Imna Heungmansa』 in 1949 by Suematsu Yasukazu, who was active in the Japanese Government-General of Korea and Gyeongseong Imperial University.
 There is no primary literature or archaeological data to prove the Imna or orthodox opinion in the academic circles of Japan and South Korea. As a result, the history of Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla, Gaya, etc., and the real history of Gojoseon and the pre-Gojoseon that gave birth to those nations were damaged, and Korean history was established as a history of identity and heteronomy. Therefore, examining the reality of Gaya history and the core logic of the theory of Imna Japan through primary literature and archaeological data is inevitably a serious task to restore the original form of Korean history.
 This study approached the reality of Gayasa based on 『Samgukyusa』 and 『Samguksagi』, and analyzed the core logics of Kim Tae-shik and Lee Youngshik, who are talked about as authorities in Gaya history research, to dismantle the basis of Imna Nihonbu theory and set a new turning point in Gay history research. Its purpose is to create

Manuskrip Al-Quran Madura: Analisis Terhadap Kodikologi Manuskrip al-Quran MSS 4322 Koleksi Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Manuscripts of Al-Quran in Madura: An Analysis of the Codicology of Manuscripts al-Quran MSS 4322 from National Library of Malaysia Collection

Abstract Copying Mashaf Al-Quran with handwriting became a tradition of the Malay community once upon a time as a vehicle for the spread of Islam in the archipelago. As a result, the scientific heritage of the Islamic community in the form of manuscripts or printed materials produced with high quality. Therefore, this article’s purpose is to elucidate the history of the al-Quran manuscript writing in Indonesia, and also explain in detail about the history of al-Quran manuscript writing in Madura besides the focuses on the codicology found in al-Quran manuscript MSS 4322 which has been collected in the National Library of Malaysia. This study uses a qualitative approach with philological methods. The findings show that the history of the writing of the Qurʾan in Madura took place in line with the arrival and spread of Islam in the region of Madura in the 15th century AD. Based on the codicological analysis it was found that this manuscript came from the country of Madura, Indonesia. This is because it was written in the manuscripts that Pangeran Jimat was ruler of Madura in the 18th century AD. The writing uses daluang paper with a naskhi style writing model. This research shows that the rasm used in the mashaf tends more to rasm Imlaʾi. The beautiful illumination is with the drawing of spiral leaves as a result of a combination of various colors. The findings show that the author submits a proposal so that this manuscript can be digitized as a scholarly heritage so that it will last for a long time and help the community to more easily access it in a digital form that is sustainable in nature. In conclusion, this manuscript of the Qurʾan is a masterpiece that will enhance the dignity and writings of previous scholars academically and more authoritatively to the digital generation, especially in the field of the Qurʾan.

Ivory from early Anglo-Saxon burials in Lincolnshire – A biomolecular study

Ivory bag rings have been found in more than 70 cemeteries across southern, central, and eastern England dating to between the late-5th and 7th centuries AD. These rings are most frequently found in richly furnished female graves, and would have served as the framework for bags that hung at the waist. Debate over the source of this ivory has prevailed since the 19th century, with walrus and mammoth ivory considered as possible contenders to elephantid ivory. Recent excavations at an early Anglo-Saxon cemetery in Scremby, Lincolnshire revealed a number of elaborate female burials containing such bag rings. Using radiocarbon dating this study aimed to establish whether the rings were contemporary with the burials before seeking to identify the species of ivory through Zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry (ZooMS). Strontium analysis was also used to identify the place of residence of the elephantids at the time of tusk formation. Through a multi-methodological approach, we have established that the ivory used for the Scremby bag rings came from elephants living in an area of young volcanic rocks in Africa at some point during the 5th and 6th centuries AD. This preliminary evidence allows us to consider the networks and socio-economic factors that facilitated the distribution of ivory from Africa to the British Isles at this time.

New challenges in archaeopalynology: Pollen analysis on Roman bivalve shells from south-western Europe and North Africa

The European flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) is a native species that was consumed as a luxurious product by the Romans. In the Strait of Gibraltar area, between southwest Iberia and North Africa, numerous oyster shells have been found in Roman archaeological sites located in both, the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The origin of these oysters is unknown, as so if they were farmed or harvested in the wild and/or even imported for consumption. This study presents the results of pollen analysis of oyster shells from six archaeological sites in the Strait of Gibraltar area dated between the 1st and 6th centuries AD. This is the first time that such research is undertaken in the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa; the second worldwide for a discipline rarely known until now: conchopalynology. Our study suggests that differences observed in pollen spectra could be used to identify the origin of the consumed specimens, i.e. where they were grown or harvested, discriminating whether oyster shells originated from the Mediterranean Sea or the Atlantic Ocean coastline.

Acculturation of Java and Chinese Culture in Historical Perspective

<p>The purpose of this study is to explain historically the acculturation process of Javanese-Chinese culture which its existence is still being felt today. The research question is how was the process of acculturation of Javanese and Chinese culture and what form. The method used in this study is the historical method which has four operational steps: Heuristics, criticism, interpretation, and historiography. A search for library research is needed to find out initial information on the problems being studied. Anthropological and sociological approaches are needed to sharpen data analysis. The results of this study explain that the acculturation of Javanese and Chinese culture was formed through a long historical process since the 5th century AD. The initial interaction of ethnic Chinese with Javanese people took place intensively through trade relations. The arrival of ethnic Chinese to Java took place gradually by sea. The interaction of ethnic Chinese culture with the local community runs naturally and without any cultural conflict between the two. This long-standing cultural interaction has resulted in the acculturation of Javanese and Chinese cultures merging into one local culture of the Javanese people. Almost all elements of Javanese life are more or less influenced by Chinese culture. As in architecture, food, literature, batik, sports, musical instruments, religion, performing arts and traditions. The conclusion of this study shows that the process of acculturation of Javanese and Chinese cultures has given birth to a mixed culture that has become part of the cultural wealth of Javanese society.</p>

Dynamics of Diversity of Woody Species Taxa under Human Impact in the Upper Volga Region (NW Russia) According to Pedoanthracological Data

We studied charcoal from several types of natural soil archives, including cultural layers of archaeological sites (hillforts), surrounding forest and arable soils, and sediments in lower parts of the slopes associated with hillforts and moraine hills. The stratigraphy of the charcoals was described, and 41 samples were radiocarbon-dated. Analysis of 2277 charcoals showed the presence of 13 taxa of woody species; Pinus and Picea charcoals dominated. Charcoals older than 300 BC were found only in sediment and in several pits formed after treefalls with uprooting. The greatest diversity of woody species was found in the hillforts’ cultural layers composed of Anthropogenic Dark Earth soils formed between 300 BC and 300 cal. AD (Early Iron Age). All charcoals from ancient arable soils were younger than charcoals from the hillforts. Charcoals indicated that burning for arable farming started in the study region in the 6th century AD. Woody taxa exhibited a decrease in number of species and a decrease in the proportion of nemoral (broadleaved) species from the Early Iron Age to the Middle Ages and to the present. Quercus, Tilia, and Corylus have become relatively rare, although they still occur in the study region. Ulmus and Acer are now rare in the Upper Volga region and were not found in the vicinity of the study sites.

Palaeoeconomy and Palaeoenvironment of Halmyris—A Roman Settlement in Southeast Romania: Archaeozoological and Phytolith Evidences

Halmyris (Murighiol, Tulcea County, Romania) is one of the most important Roman settlements located in the inferior sector of the Danube Delta, in the easternmost part of Scythia province during the Late Antiquity. Halmyris was the most easterly fort of the Danubian border in Roman times and probably served as a supply centre for the imperial fleet; Roman inscriptions inform on the existence of a ‘mariner’s village’ named vicus classicorum. Given that the written information about this settlement is extremely incomplete, the study of animal and plant remains can answer important questions related to economic life (e.g., human use of biological resources) and the relationship between community and environment. This study contributes to understanding the process of Roman domination in the area (e.g., highlighting the improved type of cattle, brought and reproduced here by the Romans), as well as to the knowledge of environmental changes under anthropic pressure (e.g., animal extinction, such as aurochs). In 2014, extensive archaeological research took place in the extramural area of the fort. During research, a total area of 234 sqm was investigated through five trenches west–east oriented and perpendicular to vallum II but not intersecting with it. Phytolith samples were taken from the habitation levels dated to the 5th–6th centuries AD, and faunal remains were collected from four trenches dated to the 4th–6th centuries AD. Phytolith assemblages from the Halmyris site are composed mainly of grass phytoliths. We noticed important amounts of Elongate dendritic forms and a high proportion of silica skeletons. Phytolith analysis resulting from the processing of 12 samples shows that cereals were a relevant part of the subsistence economy of the site, revealing an important signal of cereal processing. Flax fibers, which are the strongest natural fibers, were also identified in samples from Halmyris. The exploited animal resources are varied, including molluscs, fish, birds, and mammals. Most of the skeletal remains belong to the group of mammals. Animal husbandry represented an important occupation; the identified domestic mammals are cattle, sheep, goat, pig, horse, donkey, and dog. The predominant species were cattle and sheep/goat, both by the number of identified remains and by the minimal number of individuals. Hunting had small importance for the settlement under study, red deer and wild boar having the highest proportion of wild mammals.

Visualization of Rokniyeh School in 14th and 15th Centuries AD

Introduction: Rokniyeh School was one of the largest and most important schools of Yazd during 14th and 15th centuries built in 1324 AD by Seyyed-Rokn-al-Din Abul-Makaram Mohammad Qazi Hosseini-Yazdi. Few remnants of this school have been left behind, known as Seyyed-Rokn-al-Din Mausoleum. This study aims to determine the boundaries and area of the school and to visualize it.
 Methods: In this study, with the aid of historical sources and aerial maps, as well as the map of old schools of the same era, the possible boundaries and area of the school was determined and illustrated by Adobe Illustrator Version 2020. Also, a model of the school was visualized. Additionally, details about the budget and function of the school’s clinic (Dar-al-Shefa) and pharmacy (Beit-al-Advieh) was investigated using its historical endowment and other resources.
 Results: Based on the length and width of the specified space in the west, east and north of Seyyed Rokn-al-Din mausoleum, the area of the school was estimated to be about 4000 to 5000 m2. A view of the school building and movement mechanism of the water clock including its possible water path were illustrated.
 Conclusion: Rokniyeh School was the most important school in old Yazd, which had different parts, such as a library, mosque, clinic, guest house, monastery, water clock and observatory. Considering the current position of Yazd in higher education of Iran, it is suggested to establish a link between the history and its current position in higher education to inform students and academics about the historical background of higher education in Yazd.

New Evidence for Rural Anglian-Era and Early Medieval Settlement in the Lothians, at Burdiehouse, Edinburgh

The results from archaeological fieldwork between 2014 and 2016 at Burdiehouse, Edinburgh, have revealed evidence of structures, pits and enclosures related to rural settlement and activity ranging across the Early Medieval period from the 7th century AD up to the 12th century AD. A suite of features included a truncated stone platform, remains of a small post-built building with a hearth and numerous pits, postholes and curvilinear ditches. In addition, a circular clay-lined kiln was recorded. Radiocarbon dating indicates that while the building and hearth, the stone platform and numerous of the pits, postholes and linear features related to activity between the 7th and 10th centuries AD, the kiln was a later feature, dated to the 12th century AD. The evidence for rural Early Medieval settlement sites as identified at Burdiehouse is limited but recent work has emphasised how important they are for understanding everyday activity in this period.

A Cross-Cultural Reference of the 17th Century Bugis Community in the 22nd King of Bone's Diary (Study of Historical Literature)

This study aims to explore 'historical literary archives related to local culture' of Indonesia so that certain knowledge about cross-cultural activities, attitude structures, and cultural references that have influenced historical culture can be used as cultural references that are valued as the values of today's society. One of the old texts that contains various cross-cultural events in the past in South Sulawesi is the 22nd Diary of the King of Bone, namely La Tommassongek To appawelling Matinroe in Mallimongan. The works which are classified as historical literature contain experiences, expressions, and cross-cultural understandings of their time. The object of research is the Diary of the King of Bone in the 17th Century AD. The research method used is descriptive qualitative with a cross-cultural psychological approach. The results of the research show that cross-cultural representation in the form of strong individualism-collective values. This is based on four aspects of indicators, namely: a) Harmony in socializing is represented in the relationship between the King of Bone and other powerful kings, as well as foreigners such as the Dutch (Tomarajae); b) Cooperate in social groups that are represented in the culture of building houses, irrigation facilities, places of worship, and cultural celebrations, and; c) Self-control in relation to social groups is represented in an attitude of mutual assistance and protection in defending oneself, family and country; d) Give recognition or appreciation that is represented by mappacella and massolo culture

An Iron Age Shock Doctrine

In this article, a dataset of burial grounds is considered in relation to the question of a probable demographic crisis in the 6th century AD, as a consequence of the cosmic event in AD 536-7. Although indications of an extensive crisis can be seen in a wide range of sources, it is difficult to make any estimate of the extent of the crisis. Some hypothetical social consequences are, however, discussed and compared to the Black Death in the 14th century AD. For the 6th century crisis, a widespread upheaval and renegotiation of property rights for land that has been abandoned is suggested, together with a possible redefinition of the nature of property rights. After the crisis there seem to be increased possibilities for private ownership of land, which enables the acquisition of large landholdings among a limited number of people. This is related to an increasingly stratified social structure in the Late Iron Age, where an elite is thought to have been able to take advantage of the crisis for their own benefit. It is argued that this is reflected in the Late Iron Age/Vendel Period burial grounds and their locations, as these might have been used to manifestrenewed property rights.

A comprehensive proposal for rehabilitation of historic Armenian church belonging to 16th century AD (Diyarbakır, Turkey)

This study presents a comprehensive proposal for the rehabilitation of the ruined Surp Sargis Church located inside the historical city walls of Diyarbakır, namely the Suriçi region. The Suriçi region was home to many ancient civilizations and cultures. This study consists of four major stages; historical research, determination of the original structural features, seismic performance assessment, and a comprehensive proposal for the rehabilitation of the building. In the first stage, the history of the church, from its construction date to the present was examined based on the historical documents, common typology of the period, and old photographs. In the second stage, the plan, facade characteristics, construction system, and material properties of the existing structure were determined and reasons for the deterioration were identified. To determine the architectural features of the analyzed church, other Armenian churches dating back to the 16th century were evaluated in addition to the examination of the old plans, photographs, and repairs. Then, in the third stage, a seismic risk assessment of the church was done through linear, pushover, and kinematic limit analyses. In the final stage, a rehabilitation proposal was presented evaluating all the data obtained from previous stages. The proposed rehabilitation practice also considered local people living around this structure. The main goal of this study is to turn this structure into an active church for religious tourism activities where Armenians living in other places can attend worship and meetings at certain times of the year. Moreover, a social activity area for local people in the surrounding region was also planned. Accordingly, the current paper provides a comprehensive rehabilitation approach that can be applied to similar cultural heritage structures.

Revealing the Materials, Painting Techniques, and State of Preservation of a Heavily Altered Early 19th Century Greek Icon through MA-XRF

Macroscopic X-ray fluorescence analysis (MA-XRF) is a non-destructive analytical technique that allows for the rapid and thorough investigation of paintings; therefore, it is nowadays increasingly involved in relevant studies. In the present work, a state-of-the-art MA-XRF set-up is utilized to identify the painting materials and techniques and document the state of preservation of an early 19th-century AD Greek religious panel painting (“icon”). The artifact in consideration has received extensive restoration interventions in the past and is considerably decayed; for these reasons, the interpretation of the relevant MA-XRF elemental intensity distribution maps is challenging. In this framework, it is demonstrated how the elemental distribution maps can be explored and interpreted to lead to a thorough investigation of the painting in consideration. In particular, the MA-XRF data interpretation allowed for the identification of the original palette that includes the rather rarely employed–in icon painting-yellow lead-antimonate pigment, led to the spotting of an invisible inscription, to the documentation of the preparation/gesso layer and the preliminary drawing. Additionally, it was possible to discriminate between the original painting and the later interventions, while the collected data revealed that the painting originally had two cross-bars attached to its back. Ultimately, the presented case study can be utilized as a guide for the proper interpretation of MA-XRF data from decayed and altered icons.

Advanced materials engineering in historical gypsum plaster formulations

We show how historical gypsum plaster preparation methods affect the microstructure and the wettability properties of the final stucco materials. We reproduced a traditional Persian recipe (Gach-e Koshteh, ~14thcentury AD), which involves a continuous mechanical treatment during plaster hydration. These samples were compared with a laboratory-replicated historical recipe from Renaissance Italy (Gesso Sottile, ~15thcentury AD) and contemporary low-strength plaster. The Koshteh recipe induces the formation of gypsum platelets, which exhibit preferential orientation in the plaster bulk. In contrast, the Italian and low-strength plasters comprise a typical needle-like morphology of gypsum crystals. The platelets in Koshteh expose the more hydrophilic {010} face of gypsum in a much more pronounced manner than needles. Consequently, the Iranian plaster displays enhanced wettability, enabling its direct use for water-based decoration purposes, or as a fine finishing thin layer, without the need of mixing it with a binder material. Contrary, in Sottile, gypsum crystals are left to equilibrate in large excess of water, which promotes the growth of long needles at the expense of smaller crystals. Typically, such needles are several times longer than those found in a control regular plaster. For this crystal habit, the total surface of hydrophilic faces is minimized. Consequently, such plaster layers tend to repel water, which can then be used, e.g., as a substrate for oil-based panel paintings. These findings highlight the development of advanced functional materials, by tuning their microtexture, already during the premodern era.

La verifica di un de restauro come criterio per una riflessione necessaria. La Villa Romana del Casale di Piazza Armerina (Enna), dal 1997 nella World Heritage List

Near Piazza Armerina (Enna), at the beginning of the cen. XX, the remains of the Roman Villa del Casale (4th century AD), with rich mosaic floors, were discovered. After the first restoration, in the mid-fifties of the cen. XX, the architect Minissi and C. Brandi designed a stable protection and system for the use of the remains of the villa. The roof was made with modern materials: aluminum profiles and sheets of glass and perspex, which evoked the ancient volumes, while maintaining the authenticity of the remains. The arrangement, due to lack of maintenance, has been a source of deterioration for the mosaics, and in fact since 2007 the works for their destruction and replacement have begun, according to a project (commissioner V. Sgarbi, arch. G. Meli) that requires a vision both external and internal unsatisfactory. Even if the problems related to water infiltration and microclimatic data appear solved, as well as those of enhancement and use, thanks to the implementation of the Management Plan (2012), the overall vision refers to warehouses or deposits that cover remains of extraordinary beauty.