Layered Model Research Articles

Fast 3D ground penetrating radar simulations for glaciers

Modeling ground penetrating radar (GPR) reflection data on glaciers with methods that require the discretization of the full subsurface domain is extremely computationally expensive because of the combination of a large domain size and the comparatively short wavelength of the signal. To address this issue, we build on and extend a previously proposed approach based on the assumption of a homogeneous background medium (ice) in which various scattering objects (e.g., crevasses, channels, boulders) are embedded far from each other such that multiple scattering can be ignored. The glacier bed, below which no scatterers are assumed to exist, represents the lower limit of the modeling domain. With this method, the two-way propagation of the radar waves through the ice is simulated in a semi-analytical way, whereby scattering surfaces are represented with a set of planar elements of different electric and reflective properties, allowing a wide range of objects to be simulated. As we also take the antenna radiation pattern at the air-ice interface into account, this simple algorithm is able to produce realistic 3D GPR data in a fast and memory efficient way. In this study, we validate the presented algorithm with an analytical solution for a layered model, and we simulate radar data for a model of the Otemma glacier in Switzerland featuring a realistic topography of the glacier bed and a subglacial channel.

Evaluation of Engineering Site and Subsurface Structures Using Seismic Refraction Tomography: A Case Study of Abydos Site, Sohag Governorate, Egypt

Because of the strategic importance of the Abydos archaeological site in Egypt as a source of wealth for Egyptian tourism, this study was concerned with carrying out geophysical measurements to detect subsurface succession and measure variations in the geotechnical engineering features of the soils/rocks in order to protect this significant area. The findings will assist geologists and seismologists in collaborating with archaeologists for future site development, revitalization, and investment. The primary objectives of this work were to determine the subsurface lithology, evaluate the engineering geotechnical properties of soils/rocks, identify the layer thicknesses, and identify the site class by calculating Vs30. To achieve these goals, seventeen (17) seismic refraction tomography (SRT) P- and S-wave measurements were executed in front of the Osirion location. SeisImager Software was used for the processing and interpretation of the outcomes. The results were the travel time–distance curves, which were used for building the 2D seismic models that exhibited the velocity and the depth of the layered models. These models were validated by our previous works using electric resistivity tomography and borehole data. The results indicated that this site consisted of three geoseismic subsurface layers. The first layer was the surface that was made up of wadi deposits, which were a mixture of gravel, sand, and silt and were characterized by incompetent to slightly competent materials. The second layer corresponded to the sand and muddy sand deposits of competent rock that was of fair to moderate quality. The third layer (clay deposits) had a higher velocity and was more compact and may be employed as a bedrock layer. The elastic moduli, Vs30, petrophysical, and geotechnical properties of the three geoseismic layers were appraised as essential parameters. Integration of petrophysical and geotechnical parameters and elastic moduli revealed that the third layer was composed of competent clays, which were characterized by low values of porosity, void ratio, Poisson ratio, and stress ratio. It also had a high rigidity, Young’s and bulk moduli, concentration and material indexes, N-value, ultimate bearing capacities, and high density values, and vice versa for the first layer. The standard NEHRP site class was B (rocks). These parameters are ordinarily used as key indications and serve as significant inputs for any future work.

Data or Business First?—Manufacturers’ Transformation Toward Data-driven Business Models

Driven by digital technologies, manufacturers aim to tap into data-driven business models, in which value is generated from data as a complement to physical products. However, this transformation can be complex, as different archetypes of data-driven business models require substantially different business and technical capabilities. While there are manifold contributions to research on technical capability development, an integrated and aligned perspective on both business and technology capabilities for distinct data-driven business model archetypes is needed. This perspective promises to enhance research’s understanding of this transformation and offers guidance for practitioners. As maturity models have proven to be valuable tools in capability development, we follow a design science approach to develop a maturity model for the transformation toward archetypal data-driven business models. To provide an integrated perspective on business and technology capabilities, the maturity model leverages a layered enterprise architecture model. By applying and evaluating in use at two manufacturers, we find two different transformation approaches, namely ‘data first’ and ‘business first’. The resulting insights highlight the model’s integrative perspective’s value for research to improve the understanding of this transformation. For practitioners, the maturity model allows a status quo assessment and derives fields of action to develop the capabilities required for the aspired data-driven business model.

Deep Learning Technique-Enabled Web Application Firewall for the Detection of Web Attacks.

New techniques and tactics are being used to gain unauthorized access to the web that harm, steal, and destroy information. Protecting the system from many threats such as DDoS, SQL injection, cross-site scripting, etc., is always a challenging issue. This research work makes a comparative analysis between normal HTTP traffic and attack traffic that identifies attack-indicating parameters and features. Different features of standard datasets ISCX, CISC, and CICDDoS were analyzed and attack and normal traffic were compared by taking different parameters into consideration. A layered architecture model for DDoS, XSS, and SQL injection attack detection was developed using a dataset collected from the simulation environment. In the long short-term memory (LSTM)-based layered architecture, the first layer was the DDoS detection model designed with an accuracy of 97.57% and the second was the XSS and SQL injection layer with an obtained accuracy of 89.34%. The higher rate of HTTP traffic was investigated first and filtered out, and then passed to the second layer. The web application firewall (WAF) adds an extra layer of security to the web application by providing application-level filtering that cannot be achieved by the traditional network firewall system.

Structural and diagenetic signatures of a very shallow sub-volcanic intrusion into a carbonate platform (Albian, Basque-Cantabrian Basin, Northern Spain)

In several tectonic contexts and especially in hyper-extensive basins, magmatic rise may crosscut shallow marine carbonate series, forming either volcanic systems or only igneous intrusions at various depths. Impacts of these magmatic events on the surrounding carbonate sediments can be significant and are relatively well documented from a geometrical, sedimentological and hydrochemical point of view. Their diagenetic signature (e.g., early diagenetic phases in cases where magma reaches or approaches the surface) still remains poorly investigated. In this paper the authors use a multi-proxy approach combining morpho-structural, diagenetic (cement stratigraphy), geochemical (carbon and oxygen isotope, U–Pb dating) and sedimentological study to investigate the Larrano igneous body contemporaneous with the Urgonian limestones (Early Albian) of the Duranguesado platform, in the well-preserved and hyper-extended Basque-Cantabrian Basin. This investigative work produced several results: the first result, combining morpho-structural and sedimentological data, is the model of a basaltic magma rising along normal faults but stopping about 50 m below the paleo-seafloor; another is the detailed description the “Larrano eogenetic anomaly” that includes cataclastic fractures, dissolution, Fe oxy-hydroxides, ferroan saddle dolomite and magnesian calcite. Such phases form an early diagenetic overprint around the igneous body and testify to the thermal shock and warm seawater circulation occurring at the time of and just after the intrusion. Pre-intrusive and post-intrusive hydrothermally-influenced cements and facies are also recorded and are perfectly calibrated by a detailed cement stratigraphy associated with a layering model of the sedimentary units. The role of magmatic CO2 contribution is not quantified in the present study. Furthermore, the δ13C signature of various cements, micrites and bioclasts suggests no thermogenic methane contribution, unlike other Albian magmatic intrusions hosted by different lithologies and recorded at various depths below the paleo-seafloor.

Effect of Tilted Uniaxial Electrical Anisotropy Parameters on Signals of Electric and Electromagnetic Logging Soundings according to Results of Numerical Simulation

Abstract —To study the effect of tilted uniaxial electrical anisotropy parameters on electric and electromagnetic logging signals, their numerical simulation and comparative analysis in homogeneous and layered models have been performed. An algorithm for three-dimensional numerical simulation of resistivity logging signals in spatially heterogeneous models with tilted principal axes of the electrical conductivity tensor, based on the finite-element method, was used in the calculations. The obtained results indicate the potential for a more accurate estimation of electrophysical properties of fractured carbonate reservoirs of the pre-Jurassic basement of West Siberia, which are characterized by the tilt of the electrical conductivity tensor principal axes.

Massively parallel modeling and inversion of electrical resistivity tomography data using PFLOTRAN

Abstract. Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is a broadly accepted geophysical method for subsurface investigations. Interpretation of field ERT data usually requires the application of computationally intensive forward modeling and inversion algorithms. For large-scale ERT data, the efficiency of these algorithms depends on the robustness, accuracy, and scalability on high-performance computing resources. In this regard, we present a robust and highly scalable implementation of forward modeling and inversion algorithms for ERT data. The implementation is publicly available and developed within the framework of PFLOTRAN, an open-source, state-of-the-art massively parallel subsurface flow and transport simulation code. The forward modeling is based on a finite-volume discretization of the governing differential equations, and the inversion uses a Gauss–Newton optimization scheme. To evaluate the accuracy of the forward modeling, two examples are first presented by considering layered (1D) and 3D earth conductivity models. The computed numerical results show good agreement with the analytical solutions for the layered earth model and results from a well-established code for the 3D model. Inversion of ERT data, simulated for a 3D model, is then performed to demonstrate the inversion capability by recovering the conductivity of the model. To demonstrate the parallel performance of PFLOTRAN's ERT process model and inversion capabilities, large-scale scalability tests are performed by using up to 131 072 processes on a leadership class supercomputer. These tests are performed for the two most computationally intensive steps of the ERT inversion: forward modeling and Jacobian computation. For the forward modeling, we consider models with up to 122 ×106 degrees of freedom (DOFs) in the resulting system of linear equations and demonstrate that the code exhibits almost linear scalability on up to 10 000 DOFs per process. On the other hand, the code shows superlinear scalability for the Jacobian computation, mainly because all computations are fairly evenly distributed over each process with no parallel communication.

Gas accretion onto Jupiter mass planets in discs with laminar accretion flows

Context. Numerous studies have shown that a gap-forming Jovian mass planet embedded in a protoplanetary disc, in which a turbulent viscosity operates, can accrete gas efficiently through the gap, and for typical parameters it doubles its mass in ~0.1 Myr. The planet also migrates inwards on a timescale that is closely related to the local viscous evolution timescale, which is also typically 0.1 Myr. These timescales are short compared to protoplanetary disc lifetimes, and raise questions about the origins of the cold gas giant exoplanets that have been discovered in abundance. It is understood that protoplanetary discs are unlikely to be globally turbulent, and instead they may launch magnetised winds such that accretion towards the star occurs in laminar accretion flows located in narrow layers near the surfaces of the disc. Aims. The aim of this study is to examine the rate at which gas accretes onto Jovian mass planets that are embedded in layered protoplanetary discs, and to compare the results with those obtained for viscous models. Methods. We use 3D hydrodynamical simulations of planets embedded in protoplanetary discs, in which a constant radial mass flux towards the star of ṁ = 10−8 M⊙ yr−1 is sustained. We consider a classical viscous α disc model, and also models in which an external torque is applied in narrow surface layers to mimic the effects of a magnetised wind. The accreting layers have a variety of depths, as parameterised by their column densities ΣA, and we consider values of ΣA in the range 0.1−10 g cm−2. Results. The viscous disc model gives results in agreement with previous studies. In accord with our recent work that examines the migration of Jovian mass planets in layered models, we find the accretion rate onto the planet in the layered models crucially depends on the ability of the planet to block the wind-induced mass flow towards the star. For ΣA = 10 g cm−2, the planet torque can block the mass flow in disc, accretion onto the planet is slow, and a mass doubling time of 10 Myr is obtained. For ΣA = 0.1 g cm−2, the flow is not blocked, accretion is fast, and the mass doubling time is 0.2 Myr. Conclusions. Our results show that although the radial mass flow through the layered disc models is always 10−8 M⊙ yr−1, adopting different values of ΣA leads to very different gas accretion rates onto embedded gas giant planets.

Proper orthogonal decomposition based seismic source wavefield reconstruction for finite element reverse time migration

The large storage requirement is a critical issue in cross-correlation imaging-condition based reverse time migration (RTM), because it requires the operation of the source and receiver wavefields at the same time. The boundary value method (BVM), based on the finite difference method (FDM), can be used to reconstruct the source wavefield in the reverse time propagation in the same way as the receiver wavefield, which can reduce the storage burden of the RTM data. Considering that the FDM cannot well handle models with discontinuous material properties and rough interfaces, we develop a source wavefield reconstruction strategy based on the finite element method (FEM), using proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) to enhance computational efficiency. In this method, we divide the whole time period into several segments, and construct the POD basis functions to get a reduced order model (ROM) for the source wavefield reconstruction in each segment. We show the corresponding quantitative analysis of the storage requirement of the POD-FEM. Numerical tests on the homogeneous model show the effectiveness of the proposed method, while the layered model and part of the Marmousi model tests indicate that the POD-FEM can keep an excellent balance between computational efficiency and memory usage compared with the full-stored method (FSM) and the BVM, and can be effectively applied in imaging.

A Comparison of Hydrological and Geophysical Calibration Data in Layered Hydrologic Models of Mountain Hillslopes

AbstractBoth hydrological and geophysical data can be used to calibrate hillslope hydrologic models. However, these data often reflect hydrological dynamics occurring at disparate spatial scales. Their use as sole objectives in model calibrations may thus result in different optimum hydraulic parameters and hydrologic model behavior. This is especially true for mountain hillslopes where the subsurface is often heterogeneous and the representative elementary volume can be on the scale of several m3. This study explores differences in hydraulic parameters and hillslope‐scale storage and flux dynamics of models calibrated with different hydrological and geophysical data. Soil water content, groundwater level, and two time‐lapse electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) data sets (transfer resistance and inverted resistivity) from two mountain hillslopes in Wyoming, USA, are used to calibrate physics‐based surface–subsurface hydrologic models of the hillslopes. Calibrations are performed using each data set independently and all data together resulting in five calibrated parameter sets at each site. Model predicted hillslope runoff and internal hydrological dynamics vary significantly depending on the calibration data set. Results indicate that water content calibration data yield models that overestimate near‐surface water storage in mountain hillslopes. Groundwater level calibration data yield models that more reasonably represent hillslope‐scale storage and flux dynamics. Additionally, ERT calibration data yield models with reasonable hillslope runoff predictions but relatively poor predictions of internal hillslope dynamics. These observations highlight the importance of carefully selecting data for hydrologic model calibration in mountain environments. Poor selection of calibration data may yield models with limited predictive capability depending on modeling goals and model complexity.

Improving learning using a layered learning model in the ambulatory care setting

IntroductionLayered learning models (LLMs) are becoming increasingly popular at various clinical practice sites and give rotational student pharmacists the opportunity to learn from pharmacist preceptors and resident mentors. The purpose of this article is to give additional insight into implementation of a LLM in an ambulatory care clinical practice setting. Given the expanding services of ambulatory care pharmacy practice sites, this is poised as an excellent opportunity to train both current and future pharmacists through utilization of LLM. CommentaryThe LLM employed at our institution gives student pharmacists an opportunity to work within a unique team consisting of a pharmacist preceptor and a postgraduate year one and/or postgraduate year two resident mentor if applicable. The LLM gives student pharmacists the opportunity to apply clinical knowledge into practice while refining soft skills that many student pharmacists might struggle with during pharmacy school or may not have the chance to develop prior to graduation. Embedding a resident within a LLM provides an ideal environment for preceptorship experience towards the student pharmacist while developing skills or attributes required to become an effective educator. The pharmacist preceptor in the LLM is able to teach the resident how to precept student pharmacists by tailoring their rotational experience to enhance learning. ImplicationsLLMs are continuing to grow in popularity in clinical practice settings. This article offers additional insight into how a LLM can improve the learning experience of everyone involved which includes student pharmacists, resident mentors, and pharmacist preceptors.

Comment on “numerical analysis of heat transfer in multilayered skin tissue exposed to 5G mobile communication frequencies” by Jagbir Kaur and S.A. Khan

Kaur and Khan have published a simulation study demonstrating that a 5G device should cause only minimal temperature variations in the skin layer. For this they use a 4 - layer skin model and the Pennes’ bioheat equation. The comment points out some differences between the 4 layered model they used and those of the groups of Abdulhalim and Feldman, who also incorporated the presence of the human sweat duct in the model. Furthermore, the comment notes that theoretical work by Neufeld and Kuster that takes into account the disparity between the time constants for electromagnetic absorption and thermal perfusion will lead to significantly higher temperature spikes that those found by the authors. Finally, new research by Gultekin and Siegel is noted that does indeed confirm temperature spikes in biological tissues for 5G frequencies.

Effect of seepage condition in geological stratification on thermal response test analysis of borehole heat exchanger

Determination of ground thermal properties is the prerequisites for the design of ground-coupled heat pump systems (GCHPs), and it is crucial for evaluating the thermal performance of borehole heat exchangers (BHEs). These parameters are usually obtained by in-situ thermal response test (TRT) based on infinite line source model (ILSM). Though the effect of the groundwater flow on the estimation of ground thermal parameters is considered in homogenous ILSM, the estimated deviation can be enlarged as seepage condition varies based on the BHE model in practical geological stratification. Based on the developed numerical layered seepage BHE model (NLSBM), this paper evaluates the effects of seepage location and seepage velocity on estimated accuracy of borehole thermal resistance and ground thermal conductivity. Relative error (RE) between effective thermal conductivity λeff and the thickness-weighted thermal conductivity λTW will be up to 30.5% with the increase of the thickness of the seepage layer. The relative error between λeff and λTW increases from 5.3% to 93.5% when seepage velocity changes from 1 × 10−6 m/s to 1 × 10−4 m/s. The minimum RE between borehole thermal resistance Rb,NLSBM and effective borehole thermal resistance Rb,eff is still up to 37% when seepage locates in the 5th layer. With the increase of the seepage velocity, the RE between Rb,eff and Rb,NLSBM is enlarged, and the minimum RE is up to 29.4% corresponding to the lowest seepage velocity of 1 × 10−4 m/s. The change of seepage velocity or seepage location has little effect on Rb,NLSBM, and the highest RE is only 0.2%.

Computational analysis of water dynamics in AOT reverse micelles

Aerosols can be modeled for detailed investigations using reverse micelles in the laboratory as well as in computational simulations. A long-standing question in the description of confined water under these conditions is that of a two-state model of core – interface or a three-state model of core – intermediate – interface. In this work, we present results of analysis of water dynamics inside reverse micelles from fully atomistic molecular dynamics simulations. The size and composition of reverse micelles is expressed through w0, the ratio of the number of water molecules to the number of surfactant molecules. Reverse micelles of diverse sizes, with w0 ranging from 5 to 20, were constructed with Sodium bis(2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate (AOT) surfactant and simulated within isooctane solvent. Residence time and diffusion coefficients, in the simulations, both behaved increasingly like bulk water with the increase in size of reverse micelles. Rotational anisotropy autocorrelation was modeled using exponential functions in the short time range of 10–20 ps and longer time data were modeled as a power law fit. Similarly, the diffusion of water in the reverse micelles was also modeled on a power law fit. All these metrics demonstrate a clear progression towards bulk water behavior as the reverse micelle size increases. Additionally, our results also support a 3-layer model of water in a reverse micelle of core – intermediate – interface. These results extend the understanding of water dynamics in reverse micelles and provide further evidence for the 3-layer model.

Rayleigh wave spectral distortions induced by an anticline structure

SUMMARYSpectral anomalies in the seismic ambient noise are commonly observed above hydrocarbon reservoirs at frequencies of several Hertz. If properly understood, these anomalies could be a potential indicator for hydrocarbon reservoir exploration or monitoring. Under the assumption that ambient noise mainly consists of surface waves, previous studies showed that the geological structure, rather than the hydrocarbon content, could be the major cause of the observed anomalies for purely elastic waves. This work further explores how Rayleigh waves interact with an anticline structure, a typical geological trap for a hydrocarbon reservoir. We propose an approximate semi-analytical surface wave approach for modelling the spectral anomalies. It is based on the contribution of 1-D local solutions from two different models. The results are compared with those obtained via 3-D numerical simulations using the spectral-element approach in the case of a wavefield dominated by Rayleigh waves. Analysis of the anomalies generated by an anticline structure is performed for different source configurations. It shows that the semi-analytical method provides reasonable spectrum predictions for smooth layered models and under some restrictions on the source distribution. Such a tool allows us to run a larger number of simulations to explore the parameter space and finally provide a general law linking the anticline geometrical parameters and the elastic properties of the medium to the anticline-induced spectral anomaly for the case of fundamental mode Rayleigh waves.

On the Critical Velocity of Moving Force and Instability of Moving Mass in Layered Railway Track Models by Semianalytical Approaches

This article presents a comparison between layered models of a railway track. All analyses are based on semianalytical approaches to show how powerful they can be. Results are presented in dimensionless form, making them applicable to a wide range of possible real-world scenarios. The main results and conclusions are obtained using repeated exact calculations of the equivalent flexibility of supporting structure related to each model by contour integration. New terms and a fundamentally different approach with respect to other published works underline the scientific contribution to this field. Semianalytical methods demonstrate that the intended results can be obtained easily and accurately. However, this benefit cannot be extended to a large number of models due to the simplifications that must be introduced in order to apply such methods. It turns out that even though the one-layer model is the furthest away from reality, it is easy to handle analytically because it has a regular and predictable behavior. The three-layer model, on the other hand, has many unpredictable properties that will be detailed in this article.

Shaping immunity for life: Layered development of CD8+ T cells.

Historically, the immune system was believed to develop along a linear axis of maturity from fetal life to adulthood. Now, it is clear that distinct layers of immune cells are generated from unique waves of hematopoietic progenitors during different windows of development. This model, known as the layered immune model, has provided a useful framework for understanding why distinct lineages of B cells and γδ T cells arise in succession and display unique functions in adulthood. However, the layered immune model has not been applied to CD8+ T cells, which are still often viewed as a uniform population of cells belonging to the same lineage, with functional differences between cells arising from environmental factors encountered during infection. Recent studies have challenged this idea, demonstrating that not all CD8+ T cells are created equally and that the functions of individual CD8+ T cells in adults are linked to when they were created in the host. In this review, we discuss the accumulating evidence suggesting there are distinct ontogenetic subpopulations of CD8+ T cells and propose that the layered immune model be extended to the CD8+ T cell compartment.

(In)Coherent-bond-networks in Ni-rich layered oxides for durable lithium-ion batteries

An intriguing “coherent-bond-network” effect is suggested here for mitigating anisotropic lattice variations inducing micro-cracks, for durable Ni-rich layered cathodes based on Li[Ni10/12Co1/12Mn1/12]O2 (NCM) and Li[Ni10/12Co1/12Ti1/12]O2 (NCT) oxide models in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Upon charging, the c and a lattice strains for NCT are lower than those for NCM, implying that mechanical failures are mitigated in the former. Considering that Ni ions are a major component in compensating for the charge imbalance caused by Li deintercalation, the Ni–O bond populations in the deeply charged state reveal a uniform bond network in NCT, relative to the conventional Ni-rich cathode with NiO6 distortion. For deeper insights, the O–O edge populations are calculated for the two oxide models, and the discretized values over the entire crystal framework are observed for NCM, whereas delocalization is shown in NCT. These results underpin the Ti-induced “coherent-bond-network” that smoothly connects the MO6 octahedral network upon charging for Ni-rich layered oxides, where M denotes a transition metal. In addition, the oxide-model-dependent (in)coherent-bond-networks are consistently identified for the Li–O bond populations of NCT and NCM, and insights into the chemical stiffness of the Ti–O bond reinforces the structural origin of the uniform octahedral environment. The structural concept based on an in-depth understanding of the Ni-rich layered models not only accounts for the fundamental origin of the Ti-doping effect on the anisotropic lattice change but also provides a local-structure-related point of view in restraining the formation of micro-cracks for durable high-energy–density LIBs.

Adaptive variable-grid least-squares reverse-time migration

Variable-grid methods have the potential to save computing costs and memory requirements in forward modeling and least-squares reverse-time migration (LSRTM). However, due to the inherent difficulty of automatic grid discretization, conventional variable-grid methods have not been widely used in industrial production. We propose a variable-grid LSRTM (VG-LSRTM) method based on an adaptive sampling strategy to improve computing efficiency and reduce memory requirements. Based on the mapping relation of two coordinate systems, we derive variable-grid acoustic wave equation and its corresponding Born forward modeling equation. On this basis, we develop a complete VG-LSRTM framework. Numerical experiments on a layered model validate the feasibility of the proposed VG-LSRTM algorithm. LSRTM tests on a modified Marmousi model demonstrate that our method can save computational costs and memory requirements with little accuracy loss.

Influence of process-based, stochastic and deterministic methods for representing heterogeneity in fluvial geothermal systems

Focus is on comparing stochastic, process-based and deterministic methods for modelling heterogeneity in hydraulic properties of fluvial geothermal reservoirs. Models are considered a generalized representation of a fluvial sequence in the upper part of the Gassum Formation in northern Denmark. Two ensemble realizations of process-based and stochastic heterogeneity were simulated using the state-of-the-art numerical modelling software, Delft Advanced Research Terra Simulator (DARTS), to assess differences on a statistically relevant sample size. Simulator settings were optimized to achieve two orders of magnitude improvement in simulation time. Our general findings show that the stochastic and process-based methods produce nearly identical results in terms of predicted breakthrough time and production temperature decline for high net-to-gross ratios (N/G). Simple homogenous and layered models overestimate breakthrough and underestimate temperature decline. More complex representation of facies in process-based models show smaller variance in results and stay within the limits of ensemble runs compared to simpler facies representation. Results indicate that a multivariate Gaussian based stochastic representation of heterogeneity provides comparable thermal response to a process-based model in fluvial systems of similar quality.