5th Century BCE Research Articles

An Israelite Residency at Mahanaim in Transjordan?

In this article we deal with the site of Tall adh-Dhahab al-Gharbi in the valley of the az-Zarqa River, the biblical Jabbok, in Jordan. We discuss a group of incised ashlar blocks found there, probably dating to the first half of the 8th century BCE. We suggest that the blocks originated from an official building, a residency or a gate complex, not yet excavated, and propose thematic similarities with visual imagery from Kuntillet ʿAjrud. We then show that this site can be securely identified with biblical Mahanaim and point to several biblical verses that may hint at the existence of a North Israelite residency there.

Tracing metallurgical links and silver provenance in Balkan coinage (5th -1st centuries BCE)

Local types of coinage testify to the emerging use of silver in the Balkan interior, possibly related to abundant ore deposits in the region. Here, we present Pb isotope data for silver coins minted by local tribes and settlements (anepigraphic coins attributed to the Derrones/Laeaei, Damastion, Pelagia, Kings of Paeonia) between the 5th and 3rd centuries BCE. For comparison, we analysed coinage of the potential Greek emporia Dyrrhachium and Apollonia for their main element and Pb-Ag isotope compositions. Statistical data evaluation demonstrates close material connections between coins from the Balkan interior and identify a predominantly local raw material provenance. The majority of Damastion’s issues defines a tight cluster fitting Strabo’s (VII.7.8) account that the settlement possessed nearby silver mines in the Balkan interior. Novobërdë/Novo Brdo (Kosovo) can be plausibly hypothesised among the available reference data to have been one of the main ore districts supplying the mint. Mixing is evident for coins from the Kings of Paeonia and coinage attributed to the Derrones/Laeaei. Virtually identical end-members suggest that Paeonian regal coinage recycled tribal issues with contribution of metal obtained from Damastion’s hypothesised mines. Contemporaneous coinage struck by Dyrrhachium as well as end-members calculated for Thasos and the Macedon kingdom (Albarede et al. in Bullion mixtures in silver coinage from ancient Greece and Egypt, J Archaeol Sci 162:105918, 2024a) signal metal sourced from the Balkans, presumably the Macedonian/Paeonian border area. Comparison of data from Greek city-states and coinage issued by Apollonia and Dyrrhachium for the Romans demonstrates a change in the type and origin of raw materials and bullion composition, indicating a shift in monetary customs and possibly metal production technology.

Polifem między nomos oraz physis. Homer, Sofiści i „prawa ludzkiej miary” w dramacie satyrowym "Cyklop" Eurypidesa

At the height of their development and popularization, the Odyssey and the Iliad were part of a rich tradition of oral epic poetry. And while the transmission of Homer’s epics was facilitated by a Panhellenic framework, these works themselves became catalysts for the consolidation and unification of Greek culture; they shaped a shared Greek identity and a common value system. Particularly significant in this regard is the episode from Book IX of the Odyssey, namely the scene of the Odysseus-Polyphemos encounter. The island of the Cyclopes, as I argue in this article, represents a structural inversion of a civilized and orderly human community; the image of Polyphemos embodies “wildness” and delineates (or redefines) the boundaries of discourse on civilization, culture, and community. This motif anticipates, thus, the debate on nomos (“law”) and physis (“nature”) that engaged the intellectual elite of Athens, known as the sophists, around the turn of the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. This article traces the reception of the Polyphemos motif within this sophistic discourse of that period. Euripides’ satyr play Cyclops, filled with allusions to the sophists who were keenly interested in the Homeric motif of the island of the one-eyed monsters, serves as the focal point for this analysis. Furthermore, I will show that Euripides uses the dramaturgical framework inspired by Homer’s epic to confront two worldviews: on the one hand, respect for tradition and values associated with ancient poetry (the attitude represented by Odysseus), and on the other, the rationalism, radicalism, and tradition-directed criticism that characterized Euripides’ contemporary political thinkers and philosophers (represented by Polyphemos).

Palaeoenvironmental evolution and decline of the harbours of the Roman and Early Byzantine city of Elaiussa Sebaste (southeastern Turkey): natural and anthropic causes

ABSTRACTThe ancient city of Elaiussa Sebaste, currently Ayaş, is located on the southeastern coast of Turkey. It was one of the main trading Mediterranean harbours from the Augustan period until the early Byzantine era. The Arab invasion in the 7th century ce marked its definitive abandonment. A significant historical topic concerns the palaeoenvironmental evolution of the northern and southern harbours of Elaiussa Sebaste, including their decline and burial. An interdisciplinary study analysed six cores drilled in the current plains corresponding to the former harbour basins. A geoelectrical study, integrated with borehole stratigraphy, reconstructed the geometry of the carbonate bedrock that forms the accumulation base of the marine sediments. Sediments deposited from the 8th century bce to the 6th century ce include the development phases of the ancient city from the 3rd century bce onwards. Sedimentology, micropalaeontology (foraminifers, ostracods), palaeobotany (pollen, non‐pollen palynomorphs, microcharcoals, plant macroremains) and Pb isotopes provided a model of the environmental evolution in both harbour basins. The main harbour expansion phase, marked by a change in Pb concentration, is hypothesized to have occurred between 140 and 220 ce, which is consistent with the historical sources indicating the development of the city during the mid‐Roman Imperial period.

An Eteocypriot-Greek bilingual inscription and the meaning of Cypriot eupatridai

Abstract This paper investigates the eupatridai of Cyprus and their roles on the island. It examines the only two attestations of the Greek term eupatridēs in inscriptions from Amathous and Kafizin, namely IG XV 1.1 n° 7, an original Eteocypriot- alphabetic Greek monumental decree and IG XV 2.1 n° 67, an alphabetic Greek private dedication. Contrary to previous scholarship, which claims that Cypriot elites easily assimilated into the emerging Ptolemaic administrative apparatus, a deeper analysis of the title eupatridēs demonstrates that the integration process was protracted and uneven. While the assimilation of the upper class did occur, it only happened at a later stage. The study shows that this title was introduced to the island in the late Classical period, likely from Greece, retaining primary meanings it had in Classical Athens. It designates members of local elites who fought to maintain their superior status and preserve the traditional Cypriot socio-political structure - which entailed their great prestige and privileges - during a transitional period from the end of the 4th century BCE until the second half of the 3rd century BCE. During those years, the wars among the diadochi, who aimed to take possession of Cyprus, threatened the traditional subdivision of the island into city-kingdoms, which ultimately dissolved under Ptolemaic rule (c. 294-258 BCE). The appearance of the title eupatridēs in late Classical and early Hellenistic inscriptions may be a significant testimony to the Cypriots’ initial reaction against contemporary political upheavals and the introduction of a new administration.

Correlative analysis of advanced microscopy techniques for metallography and corrosion microstructures of bronze phoenician coins

Correlative microscopy stands out for its ability to concurrently acquire and analyze various data types in a multimodal and multiscale environment, enabling precise localization of specific areas within samples and enhancing the accuracy and relevance of analyses. This approach showed promise in revealing the metallurgical history of ancient coins. This article focused on composition, microstructure, and manufacturing process of Phoenician-Punic copper-based alloy coins (5th–4th century BCE). The four coins studied by correlative light and electron microscopy, μ-Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray Microscopy exhibited notable differences in elemental composition and microstructures. These variations are attributed to their origin from casting, followed by striking, and subsequent recrystallization due to a more intricate corrosion process.

Colonization in Homer’s Odyssey

Homer’s Odyssey provides a rich commentary on expansion, cultural norms, and Greek values during the archaic period. This paper examines the Odyssey through the lens of colonization, analyzing the ethnographic descriptions of the Cyclopes, Phaecians, and Laestrygonians, which depict conflicts faced by Greek colonial settlers during the 8th to 6th centuries BCE. The Cyclopes represent a “savage” society, showcasing the dangers Greeks may face in unknown lands. The Phaecians elucidate a belief in Golden Age wealth and utopia lying elsewhere, particularly in the Near East. The Laestrygonians present a synthesis of these two archetypes, illustrating the unpredictable outcomes of colonial efforts. Through these ethnographic descriptions and the use of these societies in the text, Homer questions the necessity of Greek establishments abroad, and portrays the challenges associated with exploration in his era.

Agrobiodiversity and crop diffusion in Morocco from Antiquity to the early Modern period (8th century bce–17th century ce): an archaeobotanical review

Agrobiodiversity and crop diffusion in Morocco from Antiquity to the early Modern period (8th century bce–17th century ce): an archaeobotanical review

Inheriting the glory of PāṆinian grammar into computer science

the integration of Pāṇinian grammar principles into computer science represents a significant advancement in computational linguistics and natural language processing. Pāṇini, an ancient Indian grammarian, formulated an elaborate system of grammar known as Aṣṭādhyāyī around the 4th century BCE, which has been revered for its systematic and concise rules governing Sanskrit language structure. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in adapting Pāṇinian principles to enhance computational frameworks for understanding human languages. This paper explores the theoretical foundations of Pāṇinian grammar and its applicability in the context of modern computational linguistics. The integration of Paninian grammar into computer science enhances the accuracy and efficiency of natural language processing system and contributes to preservation and dissemination of ancient linguistic knowledge. Through this the researchers aim to bridge gap between traditional linguistic scholarship and modern computational methodologies. By embracing the systematic and rigorous framework laid out by Pāṇini millennia ago, researchers are poised to achieve new breakthroughs in understanding and processing human language through innovative computational techniques. The journey from ancient Sanskrit grammar to innovative computer science exemplifies a harmonious blend of tradition and innovation in the quest for linguistic knowledge and technological advancement. Keywords - Pāṇini, Aṣṭādhyāyī, Computational linguistics, Machine translation, semantic analysis, syntactic rules.

Proverbs 31:10–31: An antithesis of pre-exilic Hebrew womanhood?

The priests and scribes were familiar with the process of applying a manuscript or prophecy to a current context to produce relevant material for the era. It is most probable that the scribes and/or priests during the post-exilic Persian period reinterpreted the prophecies of Isaiah and Amos against the moral and social decay of the women of the Hebrew nation during the 8th century BCE to create an antithesis of that situation in the form of the virtuous woman of Proverbs 31:10–31. The similarity of words in the poem and the writings of Ezra could suggest that Ezra might have had a hand in the writing or editing of the poem in Proverbs 31:10–31.Intradisciplinary and/or interdisciplinary implications: The study brings Old Testament and Ancient Near Eastern studies together, with both elucidating each other.

The city of Orik in the Writings of Ancient Authors and Archaeological Records

The ancient Illyrian port city of Orik, located in what is now Albania, was an important maritime and Cultural Centre in the Adriatic region. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of all available ancient textual evidence of Orik, tracing its evolution from the 5th century BCE to late antiquity. The examination of these written sources is crucial for reconstructing the history and topography of Orik, which cannot be fully identified only by archaeological data. The main purpose of the study is to systematically identify, collect, and analyse every mention of Orik in ancient studies, including the studies of Herodotus, Pseudo-Skilax, Strabo, Titus Livius. To obtain precise and objective conclusions, a rigorous methodology was applied, which includes source criticism, comparative analysis, and correlation with archaeological data. The study provides valuable information about the evolution of Orik’s functions and status over time, its fortifications, economic activities, religious objects, and more. It allows for tracing how the knowledge of ancient geographers about this border town developed and how Greco-Roman authors portrayed it in their narratives. The most innovative contribution of the study is the first comprehensive investigation of the entire body of textual evidence about Orik. This holistic synthesis enables a deeper reconstruction of this influential Adriatic settlement. The results enhance understanding of ancient Illyria and the complex dynamics of its Hellenization. They are beneficial for related research and education. Overall, by systematically collecting and critically analysing all available ancient sources, this study offers a multi-layered portrait of Orik as a strategic Greek colony, Illyrian stronghold, maritime trade hub, and crossroads of cultural fusion in the Adriatic.

Homer’s Odyssey: Education as Phaeacian (Hospitable) or as Laestrygonian (Hostile)

Abstract The issue of hospitality in education has become prominent in the philosophy of education, with various articles and books being published recently. This is so for a number of reasons, such as the necessity to harbour and include immigrants and refugees in our schools and education systems, the rising levels of violence being experienced by individuals in school communities, and the importance of establishing dialogical relations between teacher and students and between students. In this article, we discuss the concept of hospitality by turning to Homer (8th Century BCE) and his classic work, The Odyssey (Ὀδύσσεια), connecting it to the issue of hospitality in education. The paper is divided into two sections. In the first, we refer to two passages in Homer’s The Odyssey that are very pertinent to the issue of the issue at hand; the Phaeacian passage, which stands for a prime example of hospitality, and the Laestrygonian case, a seminal example of non-hospitality, of hostility. In the second, we conduct a philosophical inquiry into hospitality and education.

Standing at the crossroads — ‘En Ḥaẓeva in the Early Iron Age IIA

This paper presents, for the first time, an analysis of the early Iron Age IIA occupation at ‘En Ḥaẓeva. A series of radiocarbon measurements from short-lived samples obtained from the site’s earlier occupation levels (Strata VIII–VII) were all dated to the 10th century BCE. It is noteworthy, that Stratum VII occupies the second half of the 10th century BCE exclusively, with its final phase around 900 BCE. Fixing the site’s absolute chronology has far-reaching implications, enabling the placement of the early Iron Age IIA settlement within the broader historical context. Situated c. 20 kilometres from the most significant copper industry centre in the Levant — Khirbet en-Nahas, ‘En Ḥaẓeva enjoyed a strategic location in the transport network of copper through the Negev Highlands and the Beer-Sheba Valley to the Mediterranean seaports. It is claimed that the economic prosperity related to copper production at Khirbet en-Nahas during the early Iron Age IIA was ‘En Ḥaẓeva’s raison d’être.

Decoding Capua’s roof terracotta: A multi-analytical study of the Fondo Patturelli sanctuary and Alveo Marotta furnace (6th century BCE – 1st century BCE)

The main focus of this study was to examine 25 samples of archaeological ceramic materials currently preserved in the Archaeological Museum of the Ancient Capua and Mitreo investigated in the framework of an international project. These samples primarily consist of architectural terracotta from the Fondo Patturelli extra-urban sanctuary, as well as architectural terracotta, pottery and waste material from the nearby Alveo Marotta furnace.To investigate these artifacts, a multi-analytical mineralogical-petrographic approach was performed. Thin section observations revealed that almost all samples exhibit a coarse-grained paste. The fragments were categorized into three petrographic groups based on the type and quantity of temper, which is mostly composed of volcanic grains. They include lithics and juvenile fragments (obsidians and pumices) ascribed to the products of the major Campanian eruptions as detected via FESEM-EDS. Bulk chemical analyses (WD-XRF) show that almost all samples form a homogeneous group made with Ca-rich clayey raw materials, also including three wastes of tiles from the Alveo Marotta. By contrast, other two wastes from Alveo Marotta were produced with Ca-poor clay suggesting the use of a different raw material.From a technological point of view the samples are characterized by a thermal range that varies from 750 to 900 °C, notably different between the earlier and later production periods, with the former fired at lower temperatures.

Multichannel GPR and multi-depth electromagnetic surveys for the study of Villa Eucheria and Aquinum at Castrocielo (Frosinone, Central Italy)

The municipality of Castrocielo (Frosinone, Italy) is a historically significant center which includes several centers of great archaeological importance, including part of the archaeological site of the ancient Roman city of Aquinum. In this work, we show the results of geophysical surveys performed in two different areas: the first area is close to the Monacato of Santa Maria al Palazzolo, built on the foundation slab of a Roman villa dating back to the 1st-2nd century BCE; the second area is close to the charging station Casilina Est, where several burials, dating back to different periods from 4th century BCE to 4th century CE, were found. The aims of geophysical investigations is to identify structures linked to the ancient Roman villa (Villa Eucheria) in Area 1, and to identify the tombs of the necropolis in Area 2. The two areas were investigated in two different days, on 27th and 28 th March 2023 respectively, through a multi-channel georadar system (GPR). In the second area, an electro-magnetometric survey was also performed. This choise is to address the heavy rain developed during the night before the acquisition. Infact the GPR survey performed during the second day of the geophysical campaign did not provide good results.Based on the geophysical results, the archaeological excavation in Area 1 confirmed the detected anomalies, documenting a section of wall and other structures and elements brought to light over a length of approximately 9 m. The results obtained in Area 2 confirmed the cropmarks visible in the aerial photo, highlighting the traces of buried structures.

El láser en la restauración de hierros arqueológicos intensamente mineralizados: criterios y protocolo de intervención en el caso de las armas de una necrópolis Vaccea (Valladolid, España)

The aim of this paper is to present the conservation treatment of a set of iron weapons from the Vaccean necropolis of the Ruedas de Pintia (Padilla de Duero, Valladolid) dated between the 4th century BCE and 2nd century CE. The cremation and burial conditions have been very detrimental to their state of conservation, generating an intense corrosion and their complete mineralization. This left the weapons in a very fragile and brittle state that made their restoration difficult, since it implied the removal of hard crusts that were much adhered to the surface and, during this process, the pieces were in danger of further fragmentation. Our proposal is the combined use of traditional abrasive cleaning techniques together with the 1064nm Nd:YAG laser cleaning that, in addition to removing corrosion products, transforms the surface into magnetite, a stable iron oxide.

ICONOGRAPHIC STUDY OF MAHAVIRA IMAGES IN MADHYA PRADESH

This paper explores the historical and iconographic evolution of Jainism in Madhya Pradesh from its inception around the 6th century BCE to the medieval period. Jainism, which emphasizes non-violence and universal compassion, developed in response to the ritualistic and hierarchical Vedic traditions. Archaeological evidence of Jainism`s early presence in Madhya Pradesh is sparse, with notable findings from the Gupta period onwards. Key discoveries include inscribed Tirthankara images from Vidisha, illustrating the spread and development of Jain art. During the Gupta era, Deogarh emerged as a significant center for Jain art, which continued to flourish under the Candellas in the 9th century, leading to the construction of iconic Jain temples at Khajuraho. The paper provides detailed iconographic analysis of various Mahavira images, highlighting their stylistic transitions from Kushan to Gupta periods and their continued evolution in medieval times. These artifacts underscore the rich artistic heritage and the socio-religious patronage that sustained Jainism in this region.

Iron Age ceramics from Thracian rock-cut complexes from Bulgaria – Mineral magnetic relics of technological production and use

The Gluhite kamani Thracian rock-cut complex in the Eastern Rhodopes Mountain is famous with its more than 500 rock niches carved in the rock at heights up to 20 m. Continuous habitation starting from the final Chalcolithic (the second quarter of the 4th millenium BCE) until the Late Classical – Early Hellenistic period (late 5th – 4th century BCE) provides unique opportunity for studying diachronic changes in pottery production and use. In this contribution, systematic analysis of a collection of 135 ceramic sherds from five archaeological periods at the site was carried out using a combined mineral magnetic and geochemical approach. Magnetic susceptibility (χ), frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility (χfd%) and firing temperature (Tfire), determined using the magnetic susceptibility method, were combined with data from elemental XRF analyses. Thermomagnetic measurements, employed for identification of magnetic minerals revealed the dominant presence of (titano)magnetite with low Ti-content and/or a fraction of single-domain magnetite and in few cases hematite. Although varying in a wide range, median χ values of ceramic sherds from the Early Iron Age (EIA) periods show similar distribution, while for Late Iron Age (LIA) with the introduction of the wheel-thrown pottery, χ values are higher, presumably due to decreased amount of silica-rich clastics in the clay. Concurrently, χfd% values decrease in ceramics from the LIA, indicating predominant presence of stable single-domain magnetite in the iron oxide composition of the ceramics. Firing temperatures (Tfire) estimations display a systematic pattern of two groups – higher (Tfire between 760 and 800 °C) and lower (Tfire ∼ 400–––600 °C). During the EIA periods both Tfire groups are present, characterized by systematic gradual decrease of the median value of the low Tfire when going from EIA1 towards the EIA2. Wheel-thrown pottery from the LIA show low Tfire ∼ 400 °C only. Based on the differences in thermomagnetic properties of ceramics, their magnetic parameters and Tfire estimates, two possible hypotheses are suggested to explain the observed changes in EIA ceramic characteristics: i) utilization of two differently sourced clay materials (illite-dominated and montmorillonite-dominated) for production of ceramics fired at higher and lower temperatures, respectively; and ii) utilization of one raw clay source, while using two firing regimes – firing at higher temperature for prolonged time, and fast firing to high temperature with successive stage of longer firing at lower temperature. Differences in thermomagnetic properties of wheel-thrown pottery from the LIA period leads to the assumption for utilization of diverse clay source for their production, as compared clay sources for the Early Iron Age periods.

Dressing Situla people: prehistoric textile remains from the Dolenjski muzej Novo mesto

This contribution examines the Iron Age textiles (8th−4th century BCE) kept at the Dolenjski muzej in Novo mesto, Slovenia, with the aim of identifying their raw materials, technologies, functions and social significance and situating them in a wider European context. The primary textile weave identified is a wool twill, which is typical for the Hallstatt culture and Italic textile traditions. Wool quality analysis indicates a local raw material with different processing methods. Certain diachronic changes are identified in textile structural characteristics, which may be indicative of influences from other regions.

Vitreous finds from the Iron Age archaeological complex at Bilsk (Ukraine) as evidence of trade by land and sea

The Bilsk archaeological complex comprises the remains of many structures associated with an impressive Iron Age fortified site and extends over a vast area in central-east Ukraine. Its importance is marked by the presence of apparently imported objects, including some vitreous ones (represented mainly by glass and faience beads), which provide researchers with materials for studying past trade in the area. A representative set of vitreous fragments was subjected to an analytical study with several instrumental techniques (namely: scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive spectrometry, laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, micro-Raman spectroscopy and micro-X-ray diffraction) in order to characterise the beads on compositional basis. The complementary data from different techniques revealed a complex picture for the raw materials, identifying several sources of silica and, consequently, several production centres for the items included in the analysed set. This information in turn led to a better understanding of the trade networks that operated in the region between the 7th and 4th century BCE. Colouring and opacifying agents are also discussed.