5th Century BCE Research Articles

“Drink, be drunk and vomit, fall and rise no more”: Understanding the image of the cup of God’s wrath in Jeremiah 25 in light of the Mesopotamian anti-witchcraft tradition

The apocalyptic vision of God commanding his prophet to serve the leaders of Judah the cup of his divine wrath in Jeremiah 25.15–17 and 27–28 has sparked heated theological debate. Multiple interpretations have been proposed based on intra-biblical analyses. This imagery, however, has never been compared to extra-biblical material. For example, a 7th-century BCE Assyrian incantation prayer for the patient’s social reintegration attributes his vomiting and staggering to a poisoned drink and diagnoses his curse as the result of his gods’ wrath. The depiction of the cup of God’s wrath in Jeremiah 25 may have drawn upon the Mesopotamian anti-witchcraft tradition to portray Yahweh as an exorcist who counter-curses his people. By compelling the leaders and the people of Judah to consume the same poisonous elixir, presented symbolically as the poisonous speech they had recklessly spread throughout the land, Yahweh causes his people to disgorge their internal toxicity.

AN EVALUATION OF THE COOKING VESSELS UNEARTHED IN THE TOPAKLI HÖYÜK EXCAVATIONS (1967-1974)

Excavations were carried out in Topaklı Höyük by L. Polacco between 1967 and 1974. During these studies, pottery and teapots used in cooking from layer L to layer C were unearthed. Pots recovered from different layers stand out with their common shape features (rims protruding, having a neck, round body, flat bottom, and handle attached between the neck and body). The soot/burn marks observed on the pots support the idea that these pots were used for cooking. Topaklı Höyük pots have different capacities. Small-sized ones may be related to the number of people in the house or used for making sauce, while larger ones may be related to the number of people in the house or the cooked product (such as milk). A teapot used for cooking on the stove was also found in Topaklı Höyük. This vessel, like the pots, has a flared rim, a round body, a flat bottom, a spout, and a single strip handle attached between the rim and the body. The cooking pots found in the Topaklı Höyük settlement had been frequently used in the Kızılırmak Basin. Encountered in all settlements in the region, these pots continued to be used without any change in form over a wide period, from the 7th century BCE to the 1st century BCE. The form called the teapot is a continuation of the form known from the Hittite Imperial Period in the Kızılırmak Basin.

Scythian Jewelry Meshes and the Problem of Their Interpretation

This article explores the phenomenon of a specific type of personal adornment worn by members of the Scythian elite in the North Black Sea region in the second half of the 5th century and throughout the 4th century BCE. The discussion juxtaposes the records from 19th-century and early 20th-century excavations with contextual analyses of very recent discoveries from Ukraine, which shed significant new light on the appearance, production, and meaning of Scythian jewelry. The reconstruction of the shape of the jewelry type in question is greatly complicated by two factors: the lack of relevant depictions in the contemporary corpus of Scythian and Greco-Scythian figure scenes and misleading scholarly references to supposed analogies in a Roman-era mosaic, which became the chief reason for the misinterpretations of the ornament’s appearance. Composed of numerous gold or gilded silver tubes; beads; pendants; and, sometimes, “buttons,” this jewelry type is reconstructed in two gender-specific variants in this article: one mesh-like and the other with a cross-chest form. For over a hundred years, scholars have considered only the mesh variant to be the correct reconstruction. As a result, many costume reconstructions of this jewelry form in specialist research and museum displays alike are still proposed without a sufficient evidentiary base.

The Meṣad Ḥashavyahu Ostracon in its Regional, Economic, and Political Context

ABSTRACT This article uses updated models of the 7th-century bce economy to argue that the harvesting activities reported in the Meṣad Ḥashavyahu ostracon occurred at a small grain-cultivating site located in the Judahite highlands. The distance between this farmstead and the inscription’s coastal findspot explains why the ostracon was inscribed in the first place: the harvester could not appeal his case in person. As can be detected in the complaint, the granary complex in the Judahite highlands specialised in cereal products and was conversely not designed for the cultivation of a diversity of crops for local subsistence. This economic choice likely originated in Judah’s effort to contribute its own grain surpluses to a broader regional network of trade and commerce, one which was defined by specialised zones of surplus production that originated in the wake of Sennacherib's campaign in 701 bce. Because Egypt built the fortress in which the inscription was found and moreover coerced Judah's king and people into a new system of obligatory payment (2 Kgs 23:29-35), the ostracon represents a stunning glimpse into a time when Judah’s own administration was forcing its labourers to meet the extractive demands of an external power. The commander (śar) in the fortress was the logical authority for the harvester’s case, as (1) a high-ranking figure close to both the Egyptian and Judahite powers, (2) a recipient of inland grain products, and (3) a potential keeper of important transactional documents.

Deep Aramaic: Towards a synthetic data paradigm enabling machine learning in epigraphy.

Epigraphy is witnessing a growing integration of artificial intelligence, notably through its subfield of machine learning (ML), especially in tasks like extracting insights from ancient inscriptions. However, scarce labeled data for training ML algorithms severely limits current techniques, especially for ancient scripts like Old Aramaic. Our research pioneers an innovative methodology for generating synthetic training data tailored to Old Aramaic letters. Our pipeline synthesizes photo-realistic Aramaic letter datasets, incorporating textural features, lighting, damage, and augmentations to mimic real-world inscription diversity. Despite minimal real examples, we engineer a dataset of 250 000 training and 25 000 validation images covering the 22 letter classes in the Aramaic alphabet. This comprehensive corpus provides a robust volume of data for training a residual neural network (ResNet) to classify highly degraded Aramaic letters. The ResNet model demonstrates 95% accuracy in classifying real images from the 8th century BCE Hadad statue inscription. Additional experiments validate performance on varying materials and styles, proving effective generalization. Our results validate the model's capabilities in handling diverse real-world scenarios, proving the viability of our synthetic data approach and avoiding the dependence on scarce training data that has constrained epigraphic analysis. Our innovative framework elevates interpretation accuracy on damaged inscriptions, thus enhancing knowledge extraction from these historical resources.

A Child Burial from Kerch: Mortuary Practices and Approaches to Child Mortality in the North Pontic Region between the 4th Century BCE and the 1st/2nd Century CE

This article discusses a poorly studied child elite burial discovered in 1953 at the necropolis of Panticapaeum, situated near the modern city of Kerch, Crimea. A reassessment of previous research is urgently needed since it did not offer an analysis of Bosporan society from the perspective of childhood studies in general and local approaches to child mortality in particular. This fresh approach sheds new light on social structures and transformations within the northern Black Sea region. A broad chronological and geographical perspective is provided in order to detect changing mortuary rituals regarding deceased children in relation to shifting socio-political situations among North Pontic Greek and non-Greek societies. A survey of current social interpretations concerning the (in)visibility of children in the mortuary customs, particularly between the 4th century BCE and the 1st/2nd century CE, is followed by a detailed description of the history of research in the Panticapaeum necropolis. A comprehensive analysis of the grave goods that accompanied the deceased child is also provided. The discussed material suggests that a new form of elite self-representation, expressed through mortuary rites, appeared around the turn of the first millennium. This included a different approach to deceased children, whose ascribed status and expected, yet unfulfilled, social roles were frequently displayed by the family through the funerary ceremony.

READING SILAPPADIKARAM IN THE CONTEMPORARY TIMES: A STUDY OF ITS PERFORMATIVE ASPECTS

Silappadikaram is a classic literary work of ancient Tamil society, believed to have been composed around the 5th century BCE by Ilango Adigal. It encompasses elements of Jainism, Buddhism, and other religious traditions then prevalent, and also it incorporates themes, myths, and theological principles from each of the belief systems. The epic offers a vivid portrayal of both virtuous and malevolent deeds, while exploring themes of joy and suffering. What sets Silappadikaram apart from other epics is that the text focuses on an ordinary couple, as opposed to kings and armies. The text painstakingly demonstrates the behavioural nuances of society, ranging from commoners to rulers. Love and separation, gaining and losing power, are recurring themes in Indian classical dramas by notable playwrights like Vishakadatta, Kalidas, Bhasa, and Bhavabhuti, etc. These plays were created with the intention of influencing society, specifically targeting individuals in positions of power and authority. However, post-colonial Indian theatre took a different approach, placing common individuals as protagonists in the plays. Works such as Aadhe Adhure, Ghashiram Kotwal, Hayavadana, and Sakharam Binder address prevalent societal issues, with the central character being an ordinary person. The main aspects of modern theatre and the plays mentioned here primarily explore the everyday activities of common individuals and how they are influenced by other members of society, economic factors, and politics. This paper studies the contemporary relevance of Silappadikaram in modern theatre by drawing a comparison with these modern Indian plays.

Possible linkage between climatic conditions and invasions on the Indian subcontinent during the period 6th century BCE to 16th century CE

Possible linkage between climatic conditions and invasions on the Indian subcontinent during the period 6th century BCE to 16th century CE

Kein Sündenfall der Frau, sondern ein Fanal der Erziehung zur Freiheit in der Urgeschichte der Bibel

Abstract Not a Fall of Woman, but a Fanal for Education for Freedom in the Bible’s Creation Story The article aims at a re-evaluation of the so-called Fall of Man narrative in Genesis 2:4–3:24, which since the early church interpretation has been linked to the loss of the image of God, which man had lost because he had partaken of the tree of knowledge in a forbidden way, whereby the woman is assigned a special guilt because she had seduced the man. This, however, was in no way the intention of the authors of this story in the 4th century BCE. Rather, the story is in dialogue with late-wisdom texts that, on the one hand, deny man the knowledge of good and evil, such as Qohelet and Job 28, or consider this knowledge to be a creative endowment of man, so Ben Sira. According to Gen 2–3, God has granted man the freedom of choice, which man can and does fail at, which is to be countered in the book of Deuteronomy by a complex theory of education.

The Scarcity of Women’s Records in Antiquity: Where Did All the Women Go?

Abstract The scarcity of women’s writings in antiquity presents an intractable problem for feminists intending to integrate women’s perspectives into the existing philosophical canon. One way to undo the erasure of women is for feminists to look to the east; in China, there is an abundance of well-preserved women’s writings, along with their biographical records, as early as the 6th century BCE. This essay will provide a survey of those women’s records, focusing on the 6th century BCE to the 4th century CE, as a way to reimagine the discipline of Philosophy and its canon.

Cranial selection in the cremated remains of the Iron Age Golasecca Celtic Civilization (Northwestern Italy, 9‐4th century BCE)

AbstractThe Golasecca Celtic Civilization (GCC) developed in the Italian Iron Age, between the 9th and 4th centuries BCE, and is characterized by the predominant use of cremation as a funerary ritual in the Italian area. Reconstructing the steps of the cremation ritual in archaeology is a complex challenge, as many anthropic actions leave only faint traces in cremated remains. Within the funerary rituals of prehistoric and protohistoric Italy, the skull has received particular attention from numerous archaeological cultures and civilizations. The context of via Marconi 2020 (Sesto Calende, Varese, northern Italy) has allowed hinting at this practice also in GCC, through the anthropological analysis of cremated remains found in two different but spatially close tombs. The analysis of the cremated remains identified the selection of some elements of the skull of an adult individual and the post‐cranium of a non‐adult individual in the first tomb, and the presence of only the skull of the non‐adult individual in the second tomb. The possibility of a ritual attention of the GCC reserved for the skull has been proven for the first time thanks to the analysis of these subjects. This work provides new data on funerary ritual behaviors of the GCC, allowing for a better understanding within the Italian and European panorama.

An Archaeometric Analysis of Black-Appearing Iron Age Glass Beads from Vinha das Caliças 4 (Portugal)

Phoenician colonisation of the Iberian Peninsula in the 1st millennium BCE introduced many novel and luxurious goods to the local populations of the Western Mediterranean. Among them, black-appearing glass beads are characteristic of indigenous female burials in Southern Portugal during the 6th century BCE. This study presents the results of the first comprehensive archaeometric investigation of black-appearing glass from Vinha das Caliças 4 (Portugal), and of black-appearing glass from the Iberian Peninsula in general. A multi-analytical approach employing Stereomicroscopic observation of manufacture and use traces, VP-SEM-EDS, μ-XRD, and LA-ICP-MS was used to cover a wide range of questions regarding technology and provenance. All analysed samples are natron glass. All samples of black and white beads are characterized by high Zr and low Sr values typically ascribed to the use of Egyptian sands. A comparison of the results of previous studies from the same site clearly demonstrates at least two geochemical provenances for Phoenician-traded glass beads, located in the Levantine region and Egypt, respectively. Furthermore, different colours of glass in individual polychrome beads exhibit similar trace element patterns, which might suggest these beads could have been produced close to glassmaking sites/regions.

Gold Artifacts from the Early Scythian Princely Tomb Arzhan 2, Tuva—Aesthetics, Function, and Technology

This article explores the extraordinarily rich gold finds from the Early Scythian princely tomb Arzhan 2 in the Republic of Tuva, southern Siberia (late 7th to early 6th centuries BCE), through the methodological framework of the chaîne opératoire (operational sequence), in order to reconstruct the objects’ processes of manufacture. Through an interdisciplinary study of the finds at the State Hermitage in Saint Petersburg, the principal author analyzed tool marks and surface morphologies, which allow for the comprehensive identification and documentation of the numerous techniques employed in the creation of the often very elaborate jewelry, decorated weapons, and other personal ornaments. The production of both individual pieces and extensive series of thousands of identical trimmings attests to the existence of complex craft processes and workshop organizations. The technological aspects of the gold finds impress through their diversity and outstanding quality, both artistically and in terms of their craftsmanship. As this article will demonstrate, the objects present the earliest evidence for a highly specialized goldsmith artform in southern Siberia.

Jewelry, Accessories, and Decorative Elements of Women’s Funeral Costume of the First Half of the 6th Century BCE in the Territory of Forest-Steppe Scythia

Among the antiquities of the archaic period of Forest-Steppe Scythia, a group of elite burials of women, possibly endowed with priestly functions during their lifetime, stands out. Until recently, only two unrobbed burial complexes were known to contain the main burials of women of high social rank, in whose graves golden costume elements were found—primarily expressive details of headdresses. The barrows (kurgans) were discovered at the end of the 19th century when amateur excavations were actively carried out on the right bank of the Dnipro. As a result of research conducted by the author at the Skorobir necropolis (in the area of the Bilsk fortified settlement, on the left bank of the Dnipro), two similar graves were recently discovered, which provided new material that significantly expanded the known geographical distribution of this phenomenon. The materials are closely analogous to the previously discovered elite female burials of the Middle Dnipro (barrow 100 near the village of Syniavka, barrow 35 near the village of Bobrytsa) and allow us to highlight a number of stable elements of the funeral costume of noble women and the sets of objects that complemented them. In this article, we consider the social and cultural significance of female attire in elite burials and delimit the chronological framework of this previously understudied phenomenon within the first half of the 6th century BCE. The new finds offer unprecedented insight into the form and meaning of one type of female headdress which researchers have tried to reconstruct for over a century.

Faynan, Nomads and the Western Negev in the Early Iron Age: A Critical Reappraisal

ABSTRACT The final report on the Edom Lowlands Regional Archaeology Project concludes that local nomadic tribes created a complex polity at early Iron Age Faynan, in southern Jordan, that was responsible for a radical shift in copper production to an industrial scale. Erez Ben-Yosef has subsequently used these conclusions as the key example in a theoretical argument about the social complexity – and, usually, archaeological invisibility – of nomadic societies. A review of the archaeological evidence from Faynan indicates that the sudden change at the beginning of the 10th century bce should not be attributed to local nomads. Evidence from the Wadi Fidan 40 cemetery – both material culture and chemical analysis of teeth – shows that its nomadic inhabitants did not actively participate in the copper industry. There is no evidence of a process of transition from nomadism to sedentarism at Faynan, and its architecture does not reflect any influence or antecedents in the archaeology of nomads. The evidence shows close material culture connections with the western Negev and the major site of Tel Masos. The scenario that best fits the evidence is that Masos took direct control of copper production at Faynan and developed it as an industrial site to exponentially increase the copper trade – Masos had the resources, technical skills, an architectural tradition, and connections to trade networks that the local nomads lacked, and which transformed Faynan. Hundreds of sites in the Negev Highlands were settled by pastoralists who found employment both in production and transport in the burgeoning copper industry. The industrial transformation of Faynan, along with the settlement of Tel Masos and the Negev Highlands sites, was short-lived, and lasted little more than a hundred years.

Dementia in the Ancient Greco-Roman World Was Minimally Mentioned.

The possibility that Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD) is a modern disease arises from the minimal mention of advanced cognitive decline by ancient Greeks and Romans, who were mainly concerned with the physical frailties of older ages. Because standard medical histories of elderly health lacked mention of cognitive decline, we examined texts by Greek and Roman authors that mentioned memory loss and dementia. Primary texts of Greco-Roman authors, 8th century BCE into the 3rd century CE, that mentioned cognitive decline were identified and critically evaluated. Secondary sources were excluded. No ancient account of cognitive loss is equivalent to modern clinical data. The term dementia was occasionally used in antiquity, but not invariably linked to old age. Ancient Greeks and Romans expected intellectual competence beyond age 60. While some memory loss was acknowledged, we found only four accounts of severe cognitive loss that might represent ADRD. The possibility of modest ADRD prevalence in ancient Greece and Rome is consistent with its low prevalence in the Tsimane of Bolivia. These contemporary Amerindians live under conditions of high mortality from frequent infections and minimal cardiovascular disease with physically demanding lives. Tsimane after age 60 had increased mild cognitive impairment; the few cases of dementia were not clinically consistent with AD. The modern 'epidemic level' of advanced dementias was not described among ancient Greco-Roman elderly. The possible emergence of advanced ADRD in the Roman era may be associated with environmental factors of air pollution and increased exposure to lead. Further historical analysis may formulate critical hypotheses about the modernity of high ADRD prevalence.

The implication of the technology and chronology reflected in the metal assemblage from the middle‐class Xiongnu burials at Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu, Mongolia

AbstractBronze and iron objects from the middle‐class Xiongnu burials at Tamiryn Ulaan Khoshuu were examined for technology and chronology. The bronze objects were made from copper–tin–lead alloys, mostly for ornamental purposes, while the iron objects were household items made of cast iron. Radiocarbon measurements dated the site to the 4th century bce to the 1st century ce. The results revealed two key factors: (1) Xiongnu style material culture established by incorporating various contributions from across Eurasia at an earlier date than previously supposed; and (2) the emergence of regionally stratified material culture suggesting intimate political relationships consistently maintained between geographically distant Xiongnu communities.

The Use of Lime over the Centuries: The Complexity of the Apulian Built Heritage

In the field of historical buildings, the wide use of lime as a binder in various contexts of application emerges from a series of artistic and archaeological evidence in the Apulia (Italy) from the 4th century BCE to the 15th century CE. The large availability of carbonate rocks in the geological substratum from Daunian Subappennines to Salento areas strongly influenced the material culture of the region. In this paper, significant study cases were presented to bring to light the technological complexity, almost completely cancelled by the widespread presence of industrial products, in the use of lime over the centuries. Through examples of use from antiquity to the modern age in Apulia (Egnatia, Lamapopoli, Tertiveri, Siponto, Lucera and Monopoli sites), technological solutions indicating an ecological dimension of production were discussed, bearing witness to technologies on a human scale and sustainability. The comparison of petrographical (POM, SEM-EDS) and mineralogical (XRPD) results indicated the technological trend and custom for lime production in the Apulian region that starts from the choice of the stone to be calcined and the aggregates and passes through the modalities of lime hydration and preparation of the mixture up to the laying.

Qlaʿ: A Royal Oil- and Wine-Production Centre in the Kingdom of Israel

Salvage excavations at Qlaʿ, a small fortified Iron IIB site in the southwestern Samaria Highlands, conducted in 1980, revealed several stone-built structures, numerous rock-cut olive-oil extracting installations and two large wine presses. In this article we present the main findings from this investigation, discuss technological and economic aspects of local production and evaluate the probability of royal ownership. In our opinion, the features of this site and other nearby settlements indicate that it was one of the royal production centres of the Kingdom of Israel in the 8th century BCE. The finds uncovered at the site showcase a unique attempt of transformation from a simple subsistence economy into a surplus production, profit-oriented, ‘market’ economy. This process was initiated and led by the central government in Samaria and probably provided economic prosperity and political strength in the days of Jeroboam II (786–746 BCE). Olive oil and wine were produced at Qlaʿ continuously until the very last days of the Kingdom of Israel.

Cypro-Phoenician figurines in Phoenicia: a reassessment

In scientific literature, one often hears about Cypro-Phoenician material culture. This terminology can indicate both artefacts produced by Cypriot craftsmanship in the Levant or artefacts presenting stylistic characteristics halfway between two cultures. In the past, this term was also arbitrarily assigned to material categories based on early archaeological finds, namely creating fictitious cultural labels. The Cypro-Phoenician terracottas are a very small coroplastic group of Cypriot origin found in some locations along the Levantine coast between the Iron Age and the beginning of the Persian period. Indeed, in the Levant, during the 6th century BCE, one can notice the coexistence of two allochthonous coroplastic groups: the Cypro-Phoenician and Graeco-Phoenician figurines. If for the Graeco-Phoenician group one can detect a certain local development, the phenomenon of the imported Cypriot figurines instead seems more problematic. This paper, therefore, aims to introduce this coroplastic group.