Semantic dualism

Writing procedure text is considered as one of genre in writing. It is enjoyable to write procedure text writing.Small group work strategy is considered as a solution for students' problem in generating and organizing ideas. Therefore, the writer is convinced that by using Small group work strategy teaching learning process will be more successful, especially in teaching and learning procedure text.In this study, the product in writing content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanics.The data was calculated by using the score of writing test. The analysis was intended to get the significant differences between taught by using small group work strategy and taught by individual work in writing procedure text.The result of this study shows that there is difference of out between both of groups. Based on statistics calculation, the mean of control group and experimental group is different. The mean score of the experimental group is higher than control group. The calculation of the t-test shows that t-observed (3,37) is higher than t-table value (2,000) for the degree of freedom 58 at the lord significance (a) 0,05. The result in writing taught by using small group work strategy was higher than taught by using individual work strategy in writing procedure text. Keywords: Writing, Procedure text, Small group work strategy, Individual work.

The text is devoted to various approaches to the concept of independent work in Russian and foreign pedagogical literature, highlighting the diversity of interpretations and objectives. In Russian scholarship, independent work is viewed as a form, method, or type of educational activity that promotes the development of cognitive and personal qualities in students and requires appropriate organizational support. In foreign studies, aspects such as "indirect learning" in Germany and "individual work" in English-speaking countries are highlighted. The article examines modern methods of teaching Russian as a foreign language (RFL), relevant for distance learning: communicative, suggestopedic, heuristic, and audiovisual. Each method aims to develop skills for independent language use and to form communicative and cultural competence through the use of edutainment technology. The article emphasizes the importance of integrating these methods into the educational process to increase motivation and learning effectiveness, as well as to analyze their impact on the development of self-monitoring and responsibility in students during independent work.

While translanguaging has gained significant traction as a theory of language that holds implications for educational settings with students from various language backgrounds, its viability in content assessment remains an unresolved issue. Students in English-medium instruction (EMI) programs at a private university in Türkiye participated in content exams that did not impose any language constraints, and follow-up interviews were conducted to probe into the participants’ language-related EMI experiences and the factors that affected their language use in their responses. Student reports showed that L1 was used by instructors to explain complex concepts or when students’ comprehension was challenged. Students used both English and L1 materials for studying, and in group and individual work, a mix of English and L1 was common, driven by the aim of cognitive efficiency and overcoming language barriers. In the content exams, both monolingual and translingual practices were employed by the participants, and their language use was mainly associated with relative proficiency in L2, encoding-retrieval match, and compartmentalization of languages. The study demonstrates that students encounter challenges in L2 comprehension and production in lessons and exams and that offering language flexibility in content exams may serve as a temporary accommodation that allows fuller expression of content knowledge, particularly in time-constrained exams.

We describe the design of Intelligent Agents and experimenting with learning environments in mobile robotics, using new technologies such as the Knowledge Query and Manipulation Language (KQML), and new features of the Jade programming language, for the creation of distributed applications such as Remote Method Invocation (RMI). A society of intelligent agents could solve these problems. These agents would be able to migrate from one node to another, the ability to communicate with other agents, using an expressive communication language, work together cooperatively to accomplish complex objectives for a user, act on their own initiative and use local information and knowledge to manage resources and requirements of other agents. Most existing software ignores the fact that generally the tasks performed by an individual are part of collective activities. There is individual work, is working with third-group contributions and consensus with others, is why the support systems to collaborative work are presented as a particular need for the development of future software and intelligent agents, as an essential component design and implementation.

This is a study of Japanese students' perception of traditional methods vs. the Natural Approach and Total Physical Response (TPR) methods for learning English, and their own preferred styles of learning. Japanese students generally prefer innovative methods, such as avoidance of grammar instruction, exclusive use of the target language by the teacher, emphasis on listening and speaking, use of games and role-playing, use of supplementary materials, and command usage in English (TPR). However, they also show some preference for traditional approaches, such as error correction, L2 only response, and rote memorisation of vocabulary lists for reading. In learning style preferences, Japanese students prefer kinesthetic learning first, and auditory learning second. Further, they prefer group work rather than individual work, and they prefer groups that include men and women. These findings will be of use not only to Japanese teachers of English but to the many English-speaking assistants who have been brought into the teaching system specifically to achieve higher levels of communicative language use among the learners.

Digital multimodal composing (DMC) has attracted language instructors’ and researchers’ increasing attention during recent years. Previous studies mainly investigated the students’ DMC processes and perceptions, but DMC products are underexamined, and in particular, scarce is research comparing collaborative DMC products and individual DMC products. This article reports an empirical study conducted with 185 EFL college students in an English for specific purposes (ESP) course in Vietnam, in which they completed two infographic tasks using Visme, one collaboratively and the other individually. The DMC products were graded according to a rubric assessing the aspects of content/organization, multimedia/visual effects, and language use; the accuracy of the students’ infographics was also evaluated. The results of variance (MANOVA) test showed no statistically significant difference in the overall qualities of infographics between the two work conditions (i.e. collaborative composing and individual composing) as to both tasks, but the between-participant effects showed that collaborative DMC products were advantageous in visual effects for Task 1 and in content/organization for Task 2. The findings of the Welch’s t -test revealed no statistically significant difference in the accuracy of students’ DMC products between collaborative work and individual work. This study fills the research gap by comparing the qualities of collaborative DMC products and individual DMC products, and meanwhile highlights the role of infographics in writing pedagogy. Implications of the study for research and pedagogy are also discussed.

This study focused on comparing the effects on 32 students’ argumentative writing qualities when they worked alone or collaborated in pairs and groups and explored the students’ opinions towards critical thinking across different writing activities. The 32 students were divided into groups of four (n=8), pairs (n=16) and individuals (n=32). Their papers were rated in terms of content, language use, and organization by three raters. The research employed argumentative writing rubrics, semi-structured interview, and observation. From the total of 15 points, the novice learners gained the highest scores when writing in groups (X ̅ = 11.22), followed by pairs (X ̅ = 10.19) and individuals (X ̅ = 8.98). The intermediate learners also gained the highest scores in group work (X ̅ = 11.50), followed by pairs (X ̅ = 10.32), and individual work (X ̅ = 9.04), respectively. Similar to the advanced level, they had the highest scores when working in groups (X ̅ = 11.95), followed by pairs (X ̅ = 10.45), and individuals (X ̅ = 9.45). The findings indicated that group work led to the highest scores in all proficiency levels and in groups, the students’ critical thinking improved regarding analyzing, evaluating and creating information when they brainstormed, shared and discussed all information. In pairs, the students also demonstrated that their critical thinking developed but only in analyzing from sharing information with a partner. In individuals, all proficiency levels reported that critical thinking was not developed as no interaction with peers.

Readers of this journal need no reminder that the rhetoric of scientific writing has become an important research site in the sociology of science, largely motivated by constructivist, strong program, and ethnomethodological concerns. Although the use of the term rhetoric relies on a residual communal memory of an ancient branch of knowledge, in the sociological literature, rhetoric as a term and as an analytic method has been treated as a late-twentieth-century invention, conceptually born of French theorists and methodologically realized by British sociologists. But other welldeveloped bodies of rhetorical knowledge are alive in the academy and have developed both theory and analytical methods of use to sociologists interested in the rhetoric of science. Rhetoric as a discipline had its origins in the political and juridical activity of Athens; the sophists, Plato, Aristotle, and others considered how one ought to talk and present one's case in public and in what linguistic manner one could or ought to enquire after knowledge. The consideration of the most effective means of persuasion was taken up by the Romans, and then by medieval churchmen, Renaissance courtiers, and eighteenthcentury reformers. Sir Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, Joseph Priestley, Adam Smith, and Alexander Bain are among those who wrote influential works on rhetoric in the early modem period; each of these considered both persuasion and the relationship between language and knowledge. As the social circumstances and social projects of the rhetoricians changed, so did the theory and practical guidelines. Together the historically deep literature of rhetoric provides many insights into the use of language and offers many analytical concepts to help expose how individual speeches and texts work. Useful introductions, surveys, and bibliographies of the history of rhetoric are James J. Murphy, A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric (1983), and Winifred B. Horner, nhe Present State of Scholarship in Historical and Contemporary Rhetoric (1983). Currently rhetorical knowledge is located within three separate departments in the modern American academy: philosophy, speech, and English

This article discusses the role of context in the interpretation of literary texts. Today, German academic literature speaks of intratextual context, intertextual context and extratextual context. By resorting to different contexts, we pursue at least two different methodological functions. First, they serve to understand and explain the text, helping to clarify the content, justifying the peculiarities of the use of language and images, and secondly, they serve to place the text in broader biographical, historical or literary contexts. Such contextual analyses often reveal an interest in knowledge that goes beyond the interpretation of the individual literary work.

As promised in our preliminary review (Hispania, December 1985), we propose to make a more detailed commentary on the strengths and weaknesses of this integrated software package. We now have had several months experience with Nota Bene, and base our observations in this review on two kinds of activities: 1) the note-taking, documentation, and word processing involved in the production of foreign language research materials; 2) the establishment and manipulation of an extensive free-form and multi-lingual database. The second activity, now in its initial stages, will lead to an annotated bibliographic guide to the avant-garde in Latin America, and brings with it special needs for integrating word processing and database management. The hardware on which we are using Nota Bene, as indicated in the earlier review, is an expanded IBM PC-XT (512KB internal memory, two disk drives, and 20MB fixed disk capacity) with an IBM Color Graphics printer and an Enhanced Color Display. Initially we installed Nota Bene for use on the floppy-disk drives, but we have since reinstalled it on the hard disk in order to organize our files better and to facilitate the transfer of files from other systems. We had earlier expressed disappointment with the printed support materials provided with Nota Bene, a concern which added use has not dispelled. However, in direct contacts with support personnel over the telephone, we received effective assistance in resolving questions regarding reinstallation procedures and other matters. Dragonfly Software maintains a number (not toll-free) in Brooklyn, New York, from 9:00 am to 5:00 pm EST. The staff will answer questions about uses of Nota Bene, but consultations on programming are charged at current rates. We also understand that the MLA is providing support for Nota Bene, although we have not yet tried to use this service. We mentioned, also in our earlier review, our search for a single software package that would handle all the demands of an extended research/bibliographic project like ours. We originally chose Nota Bene because it had attractive basic features in an integrated package. After using it for several months we realize that neither Nota Bene nor any other package we know of can fill all our complex requirements. However, in learning to use Nota Bene we have discovered a very useful feature, a programming language which will facilitate making changes in our files and in the software so as to better meet our specific needs. Therefore, we have decided to invest the time necessary to learn both the fundamentals of programming and the effective use of Nota Bene's programming language. We perceive important benefits, both for the project and for our individual work. Becoming more familiar with programming concepts will allow us in the short run to manipulate our various files more efficiently, and for the long run will force us to analyze and organize in

Students frequently commit errors despite spending huge amount of time studying language. This paper discusses a classroom-based teaching inquiry about error analysis and correction. The study focused on the use of simple past in paragraphs. The objectives of the investigation were to understand the extent to which dealing with students’ errors in a leaner-centered classroom improves accuracy in English and to assess students’ attitudes to the approach in language learning. The inquiry involved 62 first-year students from the College of Agriculture, Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine at the University of Rwanda. Individual and group work, a questionnaire and class observations were data collection tools. Findings revealed that the majority of students significantly improved their writing as a result of analyzing their errors in written work. In addition, students reported that correcting errors together gave them confidence and freedom to explore their language use more freely, to discuss their errors, to learn new words in their field of study, and to avoid repeating error while writing. Class observations showed that students were discussing and listening to each other’s opinions attentively and critically. The researchers concluded that students acquire more language accuracy when they are deeply involved in error analysis as they feel motivated and responsible for their own learning.

Multimodal assignments in higher education: Implications for multimodal writing tasks for L2 writers

Chapter 1 puts forth some preliminary considerations about our actual (that is, not fictional) use of language. In particular, it motivates the relevance of singular terms for the Radical Fictionalist approach to fiction, it sketches a picture of the semantics of proper names, and it discusses the ideas of empty names and gappy propositions. This chapter also explains some of the terminology employed in what follows, in particular the distinction between fully-fledged expressions (such as proper names) and expression-types (such as mere name-types). The final section focuses on the contentful effects achieved by the use of language and introduces the idea of impartation, one of the central concepts in the Radical Fictionalist approach to fiction.

Reviewed by: Language and Learning: Philosophy of Language in the Hellenistic Age Laura Grams Dorothea Frede and Brad Inwood , editors. Language and Learning: Philosophy of Language in the Hellenistic Age. Cambridge-New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Pp. xi + 353. Cloth, $90.00. This collection of papers on Hellenistic philosophy of language resulted from the ninth Symposium Hellenisticum, held in Hamburg in July 2001. It makes an important contribution to the secondary literature on this topic and will be valuable to anyone who studies Hellenistic philosophy. Because some chapters discuss broader issues in the philosophy of language or connect Hellenistic ideas about language to other periods, readers interested in the philosophy of language or ancient philosophy in general should also find this volume worthwhile. Although Frede and Inwood observe that the philosophy of language had not developed into a fully independent area of study during the Hellenistic period, a set of common concerns eventually emerged around such issues as the origins of language or the relations between language and thought. Discussions of these problems became the basis of later philosophical investigation in the Middle Ages and beyond. The ancients studied language in connection with a range of philosophical problems in epistemology, physics, and logic, and did not sever their inquiry from questions of linguistics and grammar. The papers in this collection likewise illuminate the relationship between theories of language and other philosophical issues. The first four chapters examine Stoic and Epicurean ideas about the origins of language, making clear that the question first raised in Plato's Cratylus of whether language is natural or conventional is far more nuanced than a simple dichotomy. James Allen argues that the Stoics' naturalism depends on understanding the origins of language in relation to the development of human rationality. Names satisfy a natural standard of correctness insofar as they result from the successful exercise of reason; thus, the imposition or thesis of names in early human history does not imply a conventional origin. A. A. Long makes the case for an even stronger connection between Stoic naturalism and the Cratylus, as he argues that the Stoics developed each of three distinct naturalist theses (formal, etymological, and phonetic) presented in that dialogue. He concludes with a detailed analysis of the Stoic theory of semantics he finds in chapter 5 of Augustine's De dialectica. These accounts of the Stoics are balanced by two chapters on Epicurean theory. Alexander Verlinsky outlines Epicurus' evolutionist view of the origin of language. In the first stage, words arise as spontaneous utterances which are already articulated and naturally related to their objects, while ambiguities are resolved in the second stage. Catherine Atherton focuses on Lucretius' account, raising challenges for the naturalist view that may also stir the interest of more recent proponents. She argues that the superior capacity for articulation possessed by humans does not adequately account for the emergence of intentional communication, which arises not from uncontrolled vocalizations but from a deliberate attempt to convey meaning. The remainder of the volume addresses various aspects of the use of language. Ineke Sluiter examines the Cynics' rhetoric and concludes that the expression of Cynicism within a certain social context ultimately undermines its anti-conventional message. Charles Brittain explores the use of language as it connects thought to reality. He explains how the development of definitions of concept terms allowed a theory of common sense concerning the relation between concepts and reality to emerge, though he argues that the common sense theory did not arise until Cicero had modified the Stoic view of common conceptions. David Blank examines arguments between the analogist and anomalist views of inflection-derivation (flexion) found in Book 8 of Varro's De lingua latina. He argues persuasively that Crates of Mallos was neither the source of this book nor an anomalist, but had been presented as one of a competing pair of analogy theorists by Varro's empiricist source. Chapters 8 and 9 focus on logical implications of the use of language. Susanne Bobzien argues that the Stoics resolved fallacies of ambiguity, not by examining the intentions of the speaker, but by appealing to the context for clarification. Because the ambiguous term will [End Page 153] have...

because it attempts to solve moral questions without reference to religion. In his second chapter, “Natural and Divine Law,” he argues that despite Defoe’s contradictory treatment of the force of necessity, for example, as an appeal to natural law, the assumption of a higher divine law remains constant. Natural law, in fact, remains valuable only insofar as it is related to or justified by divine law. Another theme which clearly emerges from Merrett ’s account is the importance which Defoe places on society as a vehicle for and condition of morality. This theme becomes particularly clear in the third chapter, “The Revolution of 1688,” and the fourth chapter, “Language and Narrative.” In the former Merrett shows how Defoe’s defence of the Revolution provoked him “to consider society in connected and integrated ways” ; in the latter, he shows how Defoe’s consciousness of the ambiguity and multivalence of language affects his authorial use of language, as well as the ways in which his characters speak. It is here that we get the most direct criticism of Defoe’s major fiction, with substantial sections on both Moll Flanders’ and Robinson Crusoe’s use of language. In his final chapter, “The Uses of Narrative,” Merrett develops Defoe’s view of the purpose of writing, and particularly of fiction. Merrett’s analysis suggests that Defoe did not think of his fiction as embodying distinct morals or propositions for demonstration, but rather as “provoking reflections” on a variety of “basic, abstract issues in the contemporary situation” (p. 105). This view would allow us to agree with Kettle, in the epigraph, that “Defoe’s novels are not illustrations,” while reserving judgement as to whether there are “ moral discoveries” to be made in Moll Flanders. Daniel Defoe’s Moral and Rhetorical Ideas is number nineteen in the English Literary Studies series of the University of Victoria. This series has been particularly valuable for eighteenth-century studies, perhaps because the General Editor, Samuel L. Macey, is himself an eighteenth-century scholar. Nine of the first twenty-one volumes are devoted to eighteenthcentury subjects, and the list of authors includes such well-known names as Donald Greene, William Frost, Henry K. Miller, and Arthur Sherbo. It is a distinguished series, and Merrett’s book is a welcome addition. h o l l i s r i n e h a r t / York University J. R. de J. Jackson, ed., Logic: The Collected Works of Samuel Taylor Cole­ ridge, Voi. 13 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981). lxvii, 420. $36.00 Under the general editorship of Kathleen Coburn and Bart Winer, Cole­ ridge’s Logic, edited by Professor Jackson of Victoria College, Toronto, as 231 volume thirteen of the Collected Works, is actually the eighth of the planned sixteen volumes that will ultimately be the definitive edition. The project is therefore half done, and with the laudable perseverance of the editors to­ gether with the generous sponsorship of the Bollingen Foundation, The Collected Works, if one may judge from the volumes already done, will be a splendid and fitting monument to one of the most profound and seminal minds of the nineteenth century as well as a boon to Coleridge scholars everywhere. It would seem that the editors of individual works are all adhering to a plan evidently suggested by the general editors. Professor Jackson’s Logic is similar in format to that of Barbara Rooke’s Friend (1969), for example, and R. J. White’s Lay Sermons (1972) : Contents, Illustrations, Acknowl­ edgments, and a Chronological Table of Coleridge’s Life (1772-1834) indi­ cate a spacious breadth of conception and bring Coleridge and his world into focus; and all of them precede Professor Jackson’s Introduction (xxxiiilxvii ), which provides an enlightening background for the text. Meticulously edited and definitively collated, the text itself is followed by editorial appen­ dixes, an almost encyclopedic subject-index (indispensable in getting at Cole­ ridge), and a short index of Greek words and phrases. Professor Jackson has perhaps gone further than his predecessors with “The Editor’s Appendix G, An Analytical Outline of the Logic” (pp. 315-34), which is most efficacious in lighting dark pasages in the text and should be...