Translanguaging in content assessment: voices, experiences and practices of EMI university students

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions: Considerable research has investigated how bilinguals produce and comprehend words, focusing mainly on how bilinguals are able to select words from the appropriate language. Less research, however, has investigated whether production and comprehension involve the same underlying mechanisms. The present study explores this issue by examining whether production and comprehension, in the first language (L1) and second language (L2), are similarly influenced by factors relating to language experience, language use, and cognitive functioning. Design/methodology/approach Spanish-English bilinguals living in an English-speaking environment completed a picture naming task and a lexical decision task in their L1 and L2. In addition, participants completed the Operation Span task testing working memory and the Flanker task testing inhibitory control, and completed a language history questionnaire probing their language experience, relative proficiency, and codeswitching behavior. Data and analysis: Performance on all tasks was submitted to correlation analyses and the impact of individual difference measures on word production and comprehension was assessed via regression analyses. Findings/conclusions: Results showed that (1) production and comprehension were more closely linked in L1 than in L2; (2) production in L1 and L2 was predicted by language proficiency; and (3) comprehension in L1 and L2 was predicted by working memory. Originality: This is the first study to compare lexical processing in production and comprehension in both L1 and L2 and how these processes are influenced by language experience, use, and cognitive factors. Significance/implications: Word production and comprehension appear to be more tightly linked in L1 than L2, but seem to rely on different processing mechanisms.

The father's role in children's L1 maintenance and L2 learning is a relatively unexplored area. This study considers the L1 and L2 proficiency of 30 Korean–English late bilinguals who immigrated to New Zealand during their adolescence and how their L1 and L2 proficiency is influenced by the language use of family members. Data were collected through a questionnaire, a vocabulary test and a story-retelling task, and analysed in terms of language use and language proficiency measures. While language use of Korean siblings and fathers is shown to have a dual role in both affecting language use and L1 proficiency, the language use of Korean mothers is not associated with their children's patterns of language use or their children's L1 proficiency. We attribute the differences to different types of interaction between Korean mothers and fathers, and their adolescent children. The data also show that parental language use plays a minimal role in the adolescent L2 acquisition.

English Medium Instruction (EMI) refers to the use of the English language to teach academic subjects where first language of the majority of the population is not English. One popular implementation of EMI, the Multilingual Model, would imply that some aspects (e.g. courses, sessions in some courses, and/or assessment) are taught through English, whereas the first language of the students is used in some other respects. This volume explores context-related ways in which the multilingual EMI model and translingual practices are seen and enacted in higher education contexts across the globe. Research on this topic is not only timely but also very much needed, particularly in contexts that are relatively new to EMI, as well as in contexts where monolingual forms of teaching and monolingual institutional policies still prevail. Empirical, research-based studies as well as theoretical reviews that centre around multilingual and translingual practices in partial and full (i.e. English-only) EMI settings are elaborated, with case studies from Colombia, Indonesia, Iraq, Norway, Qatar, Spain, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, the UK and the USA.

English Medium Instruction (EMI) is a growing educational praxis in the world. Sri Lanka also practises EMI in primary, secondary and university education contexts. Nevertheless, EMI is not adequately researched: the existing scholarship alludes to the significance of its context-dependency (e.g., Snchez-Prez, Maria del Mar 2020). Moreover, there is a lacuna of scholarly knowledge of how EMI works in Sri Lankan educational contexts. Hence, this exploratory study examined lecturers’ practices of, and insights into, EMI within the context of Sri Lankan higher education. The data were drawn from in-depth qualitative interviews with ten lecturers who teach Social Sciences through EMI at three state universities in the country. Interviewees – encompassing males and females and belonging to varying age groups – have a range of EMI teaching experience and different professional and educational qualifications. Qualitative thematic analysis was utilised to uncover themes related to EMI in the data. Findings disclose a few issues and problems associated with EMI. They underscore the belief that EMI enhances L2 (Second Language) proficiency, thus creating a space for job opportunities for undergraduates, and higher education and professional development for both lecturers and students. Nevertheless, EMI is problematic mainly due to (i) low L2 proficiency in both lecturers and students, (ii) lecturers’ inconsistent praxis in assessing and teaching students, (iii) the shortage of training programmes on EMI, and (iv) arbitrary administration issues including the recruitment of EMI lecturers. The paper provides insights into EMI implementation in English as L2 contexts and adds new vocabulary to EMI praxis and research.

While other languages can be used in English-medium instruction (EMI) classrooms, little research has been conducted on the alignment of the use of these languages with the objectives of EMI policy and how bi/multilingual practices such as translanguaging respond to the sociopolitics of EMI classrooms. This case study examined both teachers’ and students’ language use in EMI classrooms in a multilingual public school in Nepal with minority students whose mother tongues were not Nepali. A critical discourse analysis of two content-area-subject classrooms showed that only Nepali and English translanguaging among students and teachers was identified and mother tongues were consistently excluded. While translanguaging in the two dominant languages could potentially create a flexible space for teaching/learning content knowledge, further interviews with teachers and administrators and a focus-group discussion with students revealed that stakeholders’ socially constructed linguistic hierarchy had led to the exclusion of the legitimate place of students’ mother tongues in their seemingly ‘ordinary’ translingual practices. The study also notes content-area teachers' pedagogic under-preparedness to use translanguaging effectively and justly in EMI classrooms, suggesting the need to reconsider the uncritical recommendation of translanguaging without reflecting on local realities and systemic barriers.

Studies on bilingual individuals indicate that both first-language (L1) and second-language (L2) processing recruit linguistic and simulation systems, with L1 processing typically showing greater activation of simulation systems (often referred to as preference systems) and L2 processing relying more heavily on linguistic systems. When bilingual speakers switch between languages, the language used initially may influence the activation of preference systems in the subsequent language. The present study examines whether L2 proficiency moderates this influence. Employing a 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 mixed design, we investigated how L2 proficiency shapes embodied effects during L1 and L2 sentence comprehension under two language-switching conditions (L1 → L2 and L2 → L1) in bilingual participants. Results revealed that low-proficiency bilinguals demonstrated embodied effects in L1 comprehension across both switching directions. In contrast, highly proficient bilinguals showed such effects only when switching from L1 to L2 but not from L2 to L1. These findings suggest that, in the L2 → L1 condition, the linguistic system activated during L2 processing in highly proficient bilinguals exerts a stronger influence on subsequent L1 processing than in low-proficiency bilinguals, highlighting the role of proficiency in modulating cross-linguistic embodied effects.

Aims and objectives: As some Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) studies claimed that native speaking (NS) students outperform language minority (LMi) students, far-reaching inferences have been drawn by policymakers. However, previous PISA assessments were not appropriate because they only included a dichotomous home language variable. The main objective of this study is to gain a better understanding of how students’ language background and use are related to academic achievement. Design: The PISA data from 2012 provides a unique opportunity to fill this research lacuna as it includes a more elaborated questionnaire on language background and use. Data and analysis: Multivariate three-level analyses are conducted on PISA 2012 data from 18 countries, covering about 5,000 schools and 120,000 students. Findings: The results show that there is an achievement gap between LMi and NS students for both reading and math. After controlling for students and school characteristics, the LMi–NS achievement gap narrows, but remains significant. This holds true for most countries. However, language use per se is not the cause of underachievement: LMi students who more often speak a minority language with their parents do not achieve less. In some countries, speaking a minority language more often with parents is actually positively related to math and reading achievement. Nevertheless, speaking the instruction language in the school context is positively associated with math and reading achievement. Originality and significance: This study revealed that the relation between language use and academic achievement is more complex than it was conceptualized in most previous PISA studies. Scholars need to go beyond the dichotomous approach to achieve a better understanding of language use. Our results show that linguistic diversity could function as an asset for academic performance, at least if a good balance between focus on minority languages at home and instruction language at school can be found.

English Medium Instruction (EMI) has been implemented globally as a strategy for the internationalization of Higher Education Institutions to promote global competence and mobility. However, the concept of ‘English’ within the EMI context has been scrutinized, as studies reveal that the definition of ‘English’ in EMI is often contextual. This shift has brought English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) into focus. Given the limited research in Indonesia exploring EMI through the perspectives of ELF and translingual practices, this study examines these concepts within the context of the nursing EMI program. The study draws on a rich dataset, using in-depth interviews with international nursing students to analyze the conceptualization of English, ELF, and translingual practices. Findings reveal a disparity between students’ preconceived notions and actual practices. Students commonly perceive ‘English’ in EMI as a native variety shaped by exposure to popular culture such as movies, songs, and social media. However, ELF practices emerge as essential strategies for achieving effective communication, emphasizing adaptability and mutual understanding. Translingual practices manifest in the form of ‘gado-gado’ English—a blend of languages—which is seen as a creative and dynamic linguistic choice but also criticized as being less proficient or standardized. This study highlights the complexities of EMI implementation and advocates for a dynamic and flexible approach to navigating multilingual classroom contexts.

The purpose of the present paper is to analyze L2 and L3 production and comprehension from a cognitive-pragmatic point of view, taking into account Relevance Theory (Sperber and Wilson, 1986; Wilson and Sperber, 2006), Mental Models Theory (Johnson-Laird, 1983) and the Graded Salience Hypothesis (Giora, 1997). Special attention is paid to error analysis and to the detection of error sources, especially in the case of errors not attributable to transfer, interference or overgeneralization. The paper is based on three studies involving, first, L2 and L3 production (Study 1), both production and comprehension (Study 2) and L3 comprehension (Study 3). In general, the phenomena observed can be explained by a combination of Relevance Theory, Mental Models Theory and the Graded Salience Hypothesis. In fact, even when transfer is used as a strategy, its use is relevant to the learner, who assumes that it will be relevant to the recipient as well. The results also shed some light on the multilingual mental lexicon and multiple language processing.

Assessing students’ readiness for English Medium Instruction (EMI) is crucial for understanding the efficacy of EMI as a pathway to internationalization in non-native English-speaking higher education contexts. This study investigates undergraduate students’ readiness for EMI in higher education in Bangladesh, compares the preparedness of students of public and private universities. The objective is to assess how readiness—defined by perceived ability, engagement, attitudes toward EMI, and perceived challenges—varies across different academic years and institutional types. Using a cross-sectional correlational design, data were collected from 267 undergraduate students from public and private universities through a structured survey questionnaire. Key variables included perceived ability to succeed in EMI (PASE), attitude towards EMI and internationalization (ATEI), learning engagement of students in EMI (LESE), and perceived challenges of facing EMI (PCFE). Independent samples t-tests, one-way ANOVA, and multiple regression analyses were employed. Results showed no significant differences in EMI readiness across the four academic years, meaning that progression in readiness is limited despite increased exposure to EMI. The t-test revealed significant differences only in perceived challenges (PCFE) between public and private universities, with private university students reporting higher challenges. Regression analysis indicated that PASE, ATEI, and PCFE significantly predicted LESE, with ATEI having the strongest impact on learning engagement. These findings suggest that sustained exposure to EMI alone may be insufficient to enhance readiness, especially without institutional language support and resources. Therefore, universities must take care of the strategic goals of internationalization in higher education.

The knowledge of formulaic language (aka formulaic sequences) is fundamental for fluent and effective language use. Research in this area has been highly prolific in the last couple of decades and has yielded some very useful insights into the role of formulaic language in language learning and use. This chapter seeks to provide an overview of formulaic language as a linguistic phenomenon from four different perspectives. The first one concerns the ubiquity of formulaic sequences and the various functions they fulfill in language. The second theme focuses on the learning mechanisms involved in the acquisition of formulaic language in the first (L1) and the second (L2) language, as well as the differences in the way such sequences are acquired. The third theme deals with the quantity and quality of formulaic language usage, in particular, from the usage‐based perspective. The final theme covers the processing of formulaic sequences, with a focus on their comprehension and production in L1 and L2.

We evaluated external and internal sources of variation in second language (L2) and native language (L1) proficiency among college students. One hundred and twelve native-English L2 learners completed measures of L1 and L2 speaking proficiency, working memory, and cognitive control and provided self-ratings of language exposure and use. When considering learner-external variation, we found that more frequent L2 exposure predicted higher L2 and L1 proficiency, while earlier L2 exposure predicted higher L2 proficiency, but poorer L1 maintenance. L1–L2 distance limited crosslinguistic transfer of print-to-sound mappings. When considering learner-internal variation, we found that L1 and L2 proficiency were highly correlated and that better working memory, but not cognitive control, accounted for additional variance in L2 and L1 proficiency. More frequent L2 exposure was associated with better cognitive control.

Previous research on English Medium Instruction classrooms has almost exclusively documented the interaction between a teacher and students where the teacher is able to understand and use the first language (L1) of the students. We present data obtained from science classrooms in English-medium-instruction (EMI) high-school programs in China where the teacher had almost no L1 proficiency and therefore spoke only English in class. The beliefs of both teachers and students were elicited with regard to L2-only English use in classroom interaction through questionnaire and post-lesson interviews with references to lesson observations. Two hundred and thirty-one questionnaires were collected, together with 60 interviews with students and teachers following 30 lesson observations. Our findings suggest that teachers divided into three categories of beliefs: virtual position, maximal position, and optimal position (already identified in previous literature), but that students tended to prefer a classroom environment in which some L1 was permitted, or even encouraged, in order to facilitate their understanding of complex science constructs. With increasing teacher mobility and a growing demand of EMI education worldwide, pedagogical suggestions are made to EMI programs with monolingual teachers.

With the growing use of corpora in second language (L2) research, examining the role of writing topics alongside first language (L1) background and L2 proficiency in shaping L2 usage has become increasingly important. This study contributes to this line of inquiry by using a learner corpus of 1,198 argumentative essays to explore how writing topics, in tandem with L1 background and L2 proficiency, influence the use of ‘V that’ clauses (e.g., I think that it is important… ) among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) writers. The findings reveal significant effects of writing topic on the diversity and semantic distribution of ‘V that’, variations across L1 backgrounds, a decrease in frequency with higher L2 proficiency, and interaction effects among the three factors in all aspects of ‘V that’ usage. These findings highlight the importance of considering topic effects alongside L1 background and L2 proficiency in corpus-based L2 research, suggesting both theoretical and methodological implications.

This study aims to find out how students' attitudes in using social media in learning English with blended learning. This research is a survey research with quantitative approach. This research was conducted at a private university in East Jakarta. The research population included 87 Informatics Study Program students, consisting of 71 male and 16 female students. The research instrument was in the form of a questionnaire revealing about students' perceptions towards blended learning and the use of social media in learning English, which consisted of three parts, namely: student data (6 items); English learning model choices (7 items); and students' perceptions about the use of social media, including attitudes and problems encountered in learning English (15 items). The research data were analyzed using the one-way ANOVA test and t-test. The findings showed that the frequency of the use of the internet or electronic media for learning or obtaining information within 1 day affected the attitudes of students in the use of social media in English learning. However, the results of the study also showed there is no significant difference in students' attitudes in using social media in learning English based on their gender.