Abstract
Random assignment to treatment conditions is an important technique for warranting inferences regarding causal relationships among variables. When random assignment is not feasible, desirable, or possible to maintain, other methods can be used to provide robust evidence of the probability that some effect was produced by some cause: (1) regression discontinuity designs, (2) propensity score matching techniques, (3) instrumental variables, and (4) fixed effects models. Reviewed here are the logic underlying each of these methods, and the circumstances in which it may be desirable to employ these alternatives to investigate relationships among variables hypothesized to affect educational outcomes.
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