Abstract
Simple SummaryCarnivores are among the threatened mammal species due to interactions with humans and environmental effects. We collected data using camera traps across three sampling periods over three years, aiming to study the coexistence mechanisms of three carnivores: the North Chinese leopard, the leopard cat, and the red fox to depict effects from an environmental factor and anthropogenic disturbances on these carnivores within a landscape. The occupancy modeling showed that all species’ occupancy did not greatly change across years and they rather depicted occupancy stability. The elevation impacted more on species’ occupancy estimates than distances to villages and roads. We performed a multi-year assessment of species’ estimates and the results of this study reveal the impact of habitat features and anthropogenic disturbances on the occupancy dynamics of the North Chinese leopard, the red fox and the leopard cat in the Tieqiaoshan nature reserve landscape.Wildlife populations are spatially controlled and undergo frequent fluctuations in abundance and site occupation. A comprehensive understanding of dynamic species processes is essential for making appropriate wildlife management plans. Here, we used a multi-season model to describe the dynamics of occupancy estimates of the carnivores: North Chinese leopard (Panthera pardus japonensis, Gray, 1862), leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis, Kerr, 1792), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes, Linnaeus, 1758) in the Tieqiaoshan Nature Reserve, Shanxi Province, China, over a three-year study period using camera traps data. The occupancy probability of the North Chinese leopard did not markedly change with time as the occupancy equilibrium was constant or slightly enhanced. The occupancy of the leopard cat decreased with time. The occupancy equilibrium of the red fox alternately increased and decreased. However, all species presented a slight level of occupancy stability due to their small values of the rate of change in occupancy. Environmental factor and anthropogenic disturbances slightly influenced the occupancy of all species and the colonization and extirpation probability of the red fox. The colonization and extirpation for all species were relatively more strongly affected by the distances to villages and roads. Moreover, elevation increased the colonization and decreased the extirpation for the leopard cat. Species interaction factors increased with time for all species. The North Chinese leopard and the leopard cat avoided each other. The leopard cat and the red fox independently co-occurred. There was true coexistence between the North Chinese leopard and the red fox. This research confirmed that environmental factors and human perturbations are vital factors to consider in wild carnivores’ conservation and management.
Highlights
In natural habitats, the abundance of a population within a habitat may fluctuate [1].Spatiotemporal patterns are characteristic of species dynamics
In wildlife management, it is essential to assess the impacts of environmental factors and anthropogenic disturbance variations in a landscape on the viability of species
We examined whether the recent conservation approaches applied to protect the Tieqiaoshan Nature Reserve (TNR) effectively mitigated changes in North Chinese leopard (NCL), red fox (RF), and leopard cat (LC) occupancy by reducing pressures across three years
Summary
Spatiotemporal patterns are characteristic of species dynamics. Demographic parameters such as birth and death rates and migrations modulate population distributions by alternately increasing and decreasing the number of individuals [2,3]. Species may be relatively numerous at some sites and in certain habitats (forest groves or close to the salt marshes). Effective wildlife conservation requires understanding the mechanisms that cause population fluctuations. Site occupation is measured to determine how species react to habitat changes caused by environmental or anthropogenic perturbations [10]. In wildlife management, it is essential to assess the impacts of environmental factors and anthropogenic disturbance variations in a landscape on the viability of species
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