Changing pattern of the flora vis-a-vis tea cultivation in Uttarakhand Hills

China is one of the origins of ancient tea gardens, with a long history of tea culture and tea cultivation. Guizhou Province is an important tea production place in southwest China with rich forest tea resources. The purpose of this study is to obtain historical information on companion plants in historical tea gardens and provide a theoretical basis for the sustainable development of forest tea gardens in Guizhou Province. We conducted a statistical analysis and comparison of plant species among ancient tea gardens, terrace tea gardens, and forest tea gardens from a diachronic perspective, based on 21 ancient tea literature studies, 116 terrace tea garden documents, and 18 sampled plots of forest tea gardens in Guizhou. A total of 24 companion plants species belonging to 16 families and 22 genera were found in ancient tea gardens, 81 species were found in terrace tea gardens belonging to 37 families and 74 genera, and 232 species were found in sample plots of forest tea gardens belonging to 90 families and 178 genera. Companion plants can be divided into three categories. Most of the plant families recorded in the literature also appeared in the forest tea garden we surveyed. In ancient tea gardens, terrace tea gardens, and forest tea gardens, Poaceae, Fabaceae, and Rosaceae were the most dominant families, respectively. The intercropping of tea gardens has been practiced since ancient times. Companion plants in natural forest tea gardens not only provide important insights into intercropping of terrace gardens but also hold significant implications for the conservation of existing forest tea gardens and the sustainable development of tea gardens.

Leaves of Camellia sinensis plants are used to produce tea, one of the most consumed beverages worldwide, containing a wide variety of bioactive compounds that help to promote human health. Tea cultivation is economically important, and its sustainable production can have significant consequences in providing agricultural opportunities and lowering extreme poverty. Soil parameters are well known to affect the quality of the resultant leaves and consequently, the understanding of the diversity and functions of soil microorganisms in tea gardens will provide insight to harnessing soil microbial communities to improve tea yield and quality. Current analyses indicate that tea garden soils possess a rich composition of diverse microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) of which the bacterial Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Acidobacteria, Firmicutes and Chloroflexi and fungal Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Glomeromycota are the prominent groups. When optimized, these microbes' function in keeping garden soil ecosystems balanced by acting on nutrient cycling processes, biofertilizers, biocontrol of pests and pathogens, and bioremediation of persistent organic chemicals. Here, we summarize research on the activities of (tea garden) soil microorganisms as biofertilizers, biological control agents and as bioremediators to improve soil health and consequently, tea yield and quality, focusing mainly on bacterial and fungal members. Recent advances in molecular techniques that characterize the diverse microorganisms in tea gardens are examined. In terms of viruses there is a paucity of information regarding any beneficial functions of soil viruses in tea gardens, although in some instances insect pathogenic viruses have been used to control tea pests. The potential of soil microorganisms is reported here, as well as recent techniques used to study microbial diversity and their genetic manipulation, aimed at improving the yield and quality of tea plants for sustainable production.

Field investigation on the content of heavy metals in soils and three types of widely distributing compositae plants(Artemisia lavandulaefolia, Ageratum conyzoides L., Crassocephalum crepidioides) in lead-zinc tailings farmland of Yangshuo, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region was carried out, and the differential centrifugation technique and sequential chemical extraction method were used to study the subcellular distribution and chemical forms of heavy metals in these plants. The results indicated that the soil in the tailings farmland was highly contaminated by Cd, Pb and Zn, and their concentrations were 37.7, 5.7 and 8.9 times higher than their respective values of national standard for soil environment quality(GradeⅡ). The contents of Cd, Pb and Zn in the analyzed plants exceeded the normal ranges. Ageratum conyzoides L. and Crassocephalum crepidioides showed strong capability in tolerance, accumulation and transport of Cd, and they could be used as pioneer plants for Cd-phytoremediation in study area and some related areas. In addition, Cd concentrations in the stem and leave of Crassocephalum crepidioides were 159.6 mg·kg-1 and 219.5 mg·kg-1, respectively, which exceeded the threshold of Cd hyperaccumulator. Thus, Crassocephalum crepidioides can be regarded as a Cd-hyperaccumulator. Majority of total Cd, Pb and Zn were found in soluble fraction and cell wall in the plants, while only a small quantity were distributed in organelles. As for chemical forms distribution, Cd, Zn and Pb predominated NaCl-, HAC-, and HCl-extractable forms both in roots and shoots of the plants. Therefore, cell wall binding, vacuolar compartmentalization and distribution mainly in lower active chemical forms were supposed to be the main mechanisms for tolerance to heavy metals in the study plants. A difference of Cd subcellular distribution and its chemical forms in the three Compositae plants was observed. Compared with the shoot of Artemisia lavandulaefolia, more Cd was located in the vacuolus and cellular soluble parts in Ageratum conyzoides L. and Crassocephalum crepidioides. Moreover, the proportion of active chemical Cd in the shoots was lower than that in the roots. These results showed that the subcellular distribution and chemical forms of Cd were related to the plant species,and also indicated Ageratum conyzoides L. and Crassocephalum crepidioides were likely to possess a higher tolerance and accumulation of Cd.

Tea planting affects soil acidification and nitrogen and phosphorus distribution in soil

The present paper documents the invasive alien flora of Bhadrak district, Odisha, India based on data obtained from field exploration and literature consultations. Eighty seven invasive alien species of 64 genera and 40 families are documented. Of these, 52 species are being used for medicinal purposes as reported by local inhabitants. Asteraceae is found to be most dominant family contributing 12 species to the list. Most of the invasive alien flora of the district belongs to American continent (70.1%) and African continent (17.2%). Growth form analysis shows herbs share 69 species followed by shrubs (11 species), trees (4 species) and climbers (3 species) respectively. Out of 87 alien species 13 have been introduced purposely while rest accidentally during import of food grains. Ageratum conyzoides L., Eichhornia crassipes (C. Martius) Solms., Lantana camaraL. and Mikania micrantha Kunth. are spreading and covering the habitat faster than native species, exerting severe pressure on functioning of ecosystems as well as species diversity. A better planning in the form of early identification, reporting and control of the invasive alien flora of Bhadrak district is warranted.

<p>Floral reward is important in ecological and evolutionary perspectives and essential in pollination biology. For example, floral traits, nectar and pollen features are essential for understanding the functional ecology, the dynamics of pollen transport, competition for pollinator services, and patterns of specialization and generalization in plant–pollinator interactions. We believe to present a synthetic description in the field of floral reward in Ranunculaceae family important in pollination biology and indicating connections between ecological and evolutionary approaches. The links between insect visitors’ behaviour and floral reward type and characteristics exist. Ranunculaceae is a family of aboot 1700 species (aboot 60 genera), distributed worldwide, however the most abundant representatives are in temperate and cool regions of the northern and southern hemispheres. The flowers are usually radially symmetric (zygomorphic) and bisexual, but in Aconitum, Aquilegia are bilaterally symmetric (zygomorphic). Most Ranunculaceae flowers offer no nectar, only pollen (e.g., Ranunculus, Adonis vernalis, Thalictrum), but numerous species create trophic niches for different wild pollinators (e.g. Osmia, Megachile, Bombus, Andrena) (Denisow et al. 2008). Pollen is a source of protein, vitamins, mineral salts, organic acids and hormones, but the nutritional value varies greatly between different plant species. The pollen production can differ significantly between Ranunculacea species. The mass of pollen produced in anthers differ due to variations in the number of developed anthers. For example, inter-species differences are considerable, 49 anthers are noted in Aquilegia vulgaris, 70 anthers in Ranunculus lanuginosus, 120 in Adonis vernalis. A significant intra-species differences’ in the number of anthers are also noted (e.g. 41 to 61 in Aquilegia vulgaris, 23-45 in Ranunculus cassubicus. Pollen production can be up to 62 kg per ha for Ranunculus acer on meadows. Nectaries are secretory structures that synthesize and release nectar, a multi-component carbohydrate-rich aqueous solution. The relative location of nectaries within a flower is under pressure to maximize relations with pollinators, and hence to ensure the deposition of pollen on the stigma by pollinators. Nectaries are common in Ranunculaceae. Location, morphology and structure of the floral nectaries differ among Ranunculaceae representatives. Nectaries are tubular in Helleborus spp. or situated in nectary spurs (Aconitum, Aquilegia). Nectaries consist of an external epidermis, a photosynthesizing parenchyma, large branches of vascular tissue, a nectar-producing parenchyma, and an internal epidermis (Vesprini et al. 2008). Nectar production is generally associated with mutualistic relations with animals that rely on sugar secretions in their nutrition. Inter-species differences in the amount of nectar produced and nectar chemistry are noted among Ranunculaceae species. Significant variations in nectar carbohydrate composition between male and female sexual phases occur both in the protandrous and protogynous flowers. In Aconitum carmichaelii, male-phase flowers produced 2.4-fold more nectar than female-phase flowers. Nectar sugar composition can differ between species within genera. The nectar can be sucrose-dominant, e.g. in Aconitum carmichaelii or sucrose-rich and lacking glucose in A. lycoctonum (Antoń & Denisow 2014). Variability in nectar production and/or carbohydrate composition in an individual plant may be considered to be evolutionarily significant. It can modify insect movements between flowers and plants, impact on visitation rates, reduce geitonogamy and thus increase plant fitness by cross-pollination. The floral morphology and the type of the floral attractant in Anemone sylvestris is an example of the in-between form from entomophily to anemophily (lack of nectar, papillous stigma, dense hairs situated between single carpels, small pollen grains – 10-25 µm, lack of balsam on the exine surface, starch accumulation in pollen). In conclusion, the flower morphology and type of floral reward in Ranunculaceae species indicate the patterns for generalized insect visitors/pollinators (Apoidea bees, Coleoptera, Diptera) in actinomorphic species, for specialization towards bumblebees or show in-between form from entomophily to anemophily.</p>

The interactions between flowers and the insects that pollinate them have fascinated scientists for more than 200 years. The last century saw the establishment of the fundamental concept of pollination syndromes which allows classification of flowers according to the agents that pollinate them demonstrating specialisation and co-evolution of plants and pollinators. This concept has recently been questioned and the contrary, ubiquitous generalisation and chance have been proposed to be the driving forces behind plant – pollinator interactions on an individual and community level. The present study was carried out to address the question of the level of pollinator dependence and generalisation in pollination systems in an alpine plant community in alpine New Zealand. Initial research in New Zealand alpine habitats had lead to the assumption of minor importance of insect pollination as the alpine flora in New Zealand in general is not very conspicuous and the available potential insect pollinators are mainly flies and short-tongued native bees. Therefore it had been proposed that the level of autogamy and generalisation in pollination interactions in a high-alpine habitat should be high. However, it could be demonstrated that the majority of the 23 plant species in the alpine community depend on pollinator service to achieve reproductive success. A total of 87% of plant species under investigation are at least in part self-incompatible and therefore rely on pollinator service for outcross-pollen delivery. Moreover, it could be shown that the pollinators that transfer pollen do not choose plants at random. The pollination systems in the alpine community proved to consist of both rather specialised and rather generalised functional pollinator groups, moths and native bees belonging to the former and syrphid flies belonging to the latter. Furthermore, there was strong evidence that flower visitors do not automatically equal pollinators and that pollination efficiency differed between functional groups. When assessing the floral cues, e.g. flower colour and scent that attract a certain functional pollinator group, no clustering of the attractants in correlation with pollinator group could be demonstrated. However, the individual combination of colour and scent rendered each plant species distinct from most others. This novel feature of the alpine plant community may be interpreted as a way to facilitate associative pollinator learning. A foraging pollinator can easily memorise distinct flowers and subsequently proceed to direct visitation to repeat the experience of rewards. This way flower constancy and increased efficiency of pollen transfer is promoted allowing plants to benefit from adequate pollen delivery and xenogamous reproduction resulting in genetically diverse progeny that has a greater potential of survival in the challenging alpine environment.

This study analyzes the content of the pollen loads collected by honeybees in the town of Ming-Chien in Nantou County, located in the middle of Taiwan, during the one year period 1991 and investigates the pollen gathering activity of Apis mellifera. This study identified 106 pollen taxa belonging to 56 angiosperm families, one Lycopodium spore and one fungus spore. Among the pollen identified, 12 species belong to Compositae, 9 to Leguminosae, 7 to Euphorbiaceae, 5 to Solanaceae and 4 to Gramineae. Pollen of Camellia sinensis occupies the highest frequency (28.69%), followed by the Ageratum conyzoides and A. houstonianum (18.95%), Mimosa pudica (6.85%), Oryza sativa (5.98%), Citrus grandis (5.80%) and Humulus scandens (4.72%). Honeybee collects pollen from both entomophilous and anemophilous plants. Cultivated plants and wild plants are both equally important pollen sources. Factors that affect pollen gathering activity of the bees include the morphology and color of the flower, time of anthesis, distribution of plants, temperature and humidity. Most of the pollen source plants have the following features: yellow or white flowers with opened petals and exposed anther, noon-time anthesis and location close to the hive.

This study was aimed at determining the life history and evaluating the host specificity of the leaf-feeding moth, Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata Rego Barros on Siam weed Chromolaena odorata (L.). The immature stages of P. pseudoinsulata could be divided into egg, 6 discernable larval instars as well as pre-pupal and pupal stages. The efficiency of P. pseudoinsulata feeding on C. odorata from 5th to 6th instar was observed with a mean consumption by each larva ranging from 28 to 97% of leaf area. The fecundity of P. pseudoinsulata was affected by the variation of temperatures, and the mean number of laid eggs was 217.2, 284.6 and 129.2 eggs per female at 24, 28 and 32oC, respectively. Two host specificity tests of P. pseudoinsulata were carried out. The results of consumption on C. odorata test showed mutual interference among P. pseudoinsulata caterpillars. The amount of leaf consumed was dominant in Treatment 3 (T3, the 6th instar larvae on plants with different age) and at 28oC with leaf area damage 32.47 cm2/larva/day. However, the lowest consumption was observed in T1 (the 5th instar larvae on same age plants) and at 32oC with leaf area consumed 9.69 cm2/larva/day, 28.93 %. Host preference of P. pseudoinsulata on C. odorata (P1) and other plants species, Ageratum conyzoides L. (P2), Ageratum houstonianum Mill (P3) and Eupatorium formosanum Hay (P4) showed that P. pseudoinsulata larvae are more effective the greatest amount on feeding C. odorata than other plants species. Under 24, 28 and 32oC, it was 4.82, 4.52 and 4.53 cm2/larva/day for P1, 1.96, 2.29 and 2.13 cm2 /larva/day for P2, 2.73, 2.83 and 2.89 cm2 /larva/day for P3 and 2.13, 3.13 and 2.66 cm2/larva/day for P4, respectively. Based on these results under favorable conditions for the growth of C. odorata, P. pseudoinsulata performed well. Therefore, the release of this natural enemy will serve as an effective biological control and greatly reduce the invasive weeds in Taiwan. However, field experiment of this leaf-feeding moth on C. odorata is suggested before its definitive release into infested areas of Taiwan.

Development, optimization, validation and application of ultra high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for the analysis of pyrrolizidine alkaloids and pyrrolizidine alkaloid N-oxides in teas and weeds

<p align="center"><strong><em>ABSTRACT</em></strong></p><p><em>Indonesia is a country with abundant biological wealth which has 25% of plant species in the world which reaches 20,000 species that are useful in medicine. Plants of the Asteraceae family are often used by the community as traditional medicine. The pharmacological effects of Asteraceae plants can be attributed to various phytochemical compounds, including polyphenols, phenolic acids, flavonoids, acetylene and triterpenes. Flavonoids have been shown to have high activity for inhibiting xanthine oxidase. The aim of this study was to determine the total flavonoid content of several members of the Aseteraceae family (Taraxacum officinale, Crassocephalum crepidioides, Elephantopus scaber, Gynura procumbens, Ageratum conyzoides, Sonchus arvensis) using UV-Visspectrophotometry. The results showed that all Asteraceae family plants tested positive for flavonoid compounds. Determination of total flavonoid levels was carried out based on the AlCl3 method with total flavonoids expressed in QE (Quercetin equivalent) at a maximum wavelength of 415 nm. The results showed that the average content of total flavonoids of Crassocephalum crepidioides 3.4345% ± 0.2706, Taraxacum officinale 2.3217% ± 0.032, Ageratum conyzoides, L 3.3764% ± 0.257, Sonchus arvencis L. 2.7279% ± 0.0399, Gynura procumbens 2 .2825% ± 0.1370, and Elephantopus scaber 2.5294% ± 0.0861. The conclusion of this study was that the highest total flavonoid content was in Crassocephalum crepidioides and Gynura procumbens plants with the lowest total flavonoid content.</em></p><p><em> </em></p><p><em>Keywords: Phytochemical Screening, Total Flavonoid, Family Asteraceae</em></p>

The shade trees are an integral component of tea cultivation in Bangladesh. The shade trees are essential for modulating the environment of the tea ecosystem, enriching the soil fertility, reducing temperature and the evaporative capacity, conserve soil moisture and helps in the control of certain pests and diseases which are positively thermotropic in nature. The shade trees provide partial shade to the tea plants, which is important for improving the quality of the tea leaf. The right type of shade trees and their proper management is a prerequisite for successful tea crop growing. For this persists, a floristic exploration of shade trees was carried out at fifteen tea gardens in Chattogram and Moulvibazar District of Bangladesh from November 2017 to December 2018. During the investigation, a total of 44 species of Angiosperm representing 31 genera of 9 families was enlisted. For every species, scientific name, vernacular name, status, and necessary photographs are mentioned. In the assessment, the Fabaceae family shows the highest number of shade trees comprising 19 genera and 31 species. The most common permanent shade tree species among the tea gardens are Albizia odoratissima, A. chinensis, A. lebbeck, A. lucidior, A. procera, and Derris robusta. Indigofera teysmannii is frequently using as a temporary shade species in all investigated tea gardens. Cajanus cajan, Tephrosia candida, Tephrosia candida, Gliricidia sepium, Erythrina lithosperma and Desmodium gyroides species are also used as temporary shade trees in many tea gardens. Further investigations, however,are required to find out the right type of shade tree species on the growth and yield of tea plants in tea cultivation areas of Bangladesh.
 SAARC J. Agri., 18(1): 219-237 (2020)

Farmer training is important to improve weed management practices in tea cultivation. To explore the group characteristics of tea growers, we interviewed 354 growers in Guizhou Province, China. Sixty-one percent of the respondents planted tea for companies or cooperative groups, and 56% managed tea gardens larger than 10 ha. Self-employed tea growers tended to be older and smallholders, and to apply herbicides and conduct weed control less frequently (P < 0.05). Approximately 87% of the respondents conducted weed control two to four times yr−1, 83% spent between $200 and $2,000 ha−1 yr−1 for weed control, and 42% thought weed control costs would decrease by 5 years from this study. Twenty-eight species were mentioned by the respondents as being the most serious. According to canonical correspondence analysis, latitude, altitude, being self-employed or a member of a cooperative, having training experience in tea-garden weed management, and frequency and cost of weed control in tea gardens had significant (P < 0.05) influence on the composition of most troublesome weed species listed by respondents. Among the respondents, 60% had had farmer’s training on weed management in tea gardens. Of these, a significant number (P < 0.05) tended to think weed control costs would decrease, and a nonsignificant number (P > 0.05) tended to conduct weed control more frequently and have lower weed management costs in their tea gardens.

Importance of Leaf Epidermal Characters in the Asteraceae Family

Ancient tea garden has existed in Lancang County, Yunnan Province for more than 1,300 years, and is regarded as the provenance of Pu’er Tea’s seed source. The ancient tea garden ecosystem is a typical model that integrates conservation biodiversity and utilization of natural resources. In order to reveal the role of biodiversity conservation of this ecosystem, plant diversity and application value of ancient tea gardens, normal tea gardens and secondary forestry communities in Lancang County were surveyed and compared. 360 households investigation were also conducted by using household-based agro-biodiversity assessment (HH-ABA). The results showed: (1) Ancient tea garden communities have high biodiversity, whose plant species diversity (H = 3.03) is lower than that of secondary forestry (H = 4.59) and higher than that of normal tea garden (H = 2.62); (2) Life forms analysis of plant species showed the vertical structure of the ancient tea garden communities are intact, herbs, trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes are included, which is similar to that of secondary forest, while normal tea garden is dominant by herbs and no trees; (3) A large number of protected species, including five endangered, seven vulnerable and three rare, is well conserved in the ancient tea garden, while no protected species were found in secondary forest and normal tea garden; (4) The analysis of agro-biodiversity revealed that 56 % of plant species in the ancient tea garden are effectively used by households, while no plant except tea trees is used in normal tea garden; (5) The integrated values of ancient tea garden and normal tea garden illustrated that both biodiversity conservation and economic income of ancient tea garden are higher than that of normal tea garden. We suggest that the local peoples’ knowledge and experience on resource management and utilization should be well documented and encouraged, and effective conservation and reasonable utilization of ancient tea garden would be achieved through training and demonstration with the participation of the local government, research institution and farmer.