Zinc Target Research Articles

Similarities and distinctions in the activation of the Candida glabrata Pdr1 regulatory pathway by azole and non-azole drugs.

Incidences of fluconazole (FLC) resistance among Candida glabrata clinical isolates is a growing issue in clinics. The pleiotropic drug response (PDR) network in C. glabrata confers azole resistance and is defined primarily by the Zn2Cys6 zinc cluster-containing transcription factor Pdr1 and target genes such as CDR1, that encodes an ATP-binding cassette transporter protein thought to act as a FLC efflux pump. Mutations in the PDR1 gene that render the transcription factor hyperactive are the most common cause of fluconazole resistance among clinical isolates. The phenothiazine class drug fluphenazine and a molecular derivative, CWHM-974, which both exhibit antifungal properties, have been shown to induce the expression of Cdr1 in Candida spp. We have used a firefly luciferase reporter gene driven by the CDR1 promoter to demonstrate two distinct patterns of CDR1 promoter activation kinetics: gradual promoter activation kinetics that occur in response to ergosterol limitations imposed by exposure to azole and polyene class antifungals and a robust and rapid CDR1 induction occurring in response to the stress imposed by fluphenazines. We can attribute these different patterns of CDR1 induction as proceeding through the promoter region of this gene since this is the only segment of the gene included in the luciferase reporter construct. Genetic analysis indicates that the signaling pathways responsible for phenothiazine and azole induction of CDR1 overlap but are not identical. The short time course of phenothiazine induction suggests that these compounds may act more directly on the Pdr1 protein to stimulate its activity.

Variability of lead-zinc sulfide ore slurry rheological properties and its influence on flotation conditions

We investigated how the rheological characteristics of a flotation slurry change in response to variations in mineral species, slurry concentration, and particle size; slurry pH; and trap and rheological control reagent concentrations using slurries containing galena, sphalerite, quartz, and kaolinite. The results indicate that reducing particle size and increasing slurry concentration leads to varying degrees of increase in apparent viscosity and yield stress. At the same particle size, the slurry exhibits the following order of apparent viscosity and yield stress: kaolinite > galena > sphalerite > quartz. In addition, as the slurry’s apparent viscosity and yield stress increase, the rheology decreases, creating progressively unfavorable conditions for the flotation of lead, zinc, and other target minerals. Furthermore, changes in pH have no significant effect on the slurry’s rheology when the slurry is comprised of vein minerals. Moreover, galena and sphalerite depict particle agglomeration in the slurry. Ultimately, the addition of sodium silicate as a rheological control reagent substantially enhances the slurry’s rheological properties. This results in a system where problematic minerals like kaolinite are more effectively dispersed, thereby promoting efficient lead-zinc mineral flotation. Regarding the flotation of lead sulfide and zinc minerals, the addition of kaolinite raises the apparent viscosity of the mixed slurry, hindering the flotation of the target minerals. Conversely, quartz lowers the apparent viscosity aiding the flotation separation process. Understanding the relationship between flotation conditions and the pulp’s rheological properties can provide valuable guidance for subsequent flotation tests.

Synthesis, pharmaceutical properties, and in silico study of ZnO@TiO2 nanocomposite

The use of environmentally friendly production of nanoparticles has recently interest of scientists. The primary goal of this study is to create core–shell nanoparticles zinc oxide @ dioxide titanium (ZnO @ TiO2) for some biomedical application by a two-stage Nd: YAG pulsed laser ablation, the first stage involves laser ablation of a Zinc target to produce ZnO nanoparticles (the core) in colloidal form. Subsequently, in the second stage, TiO2 (the shell) is ablated within the colloidal ZnO Nanoparticles. The transmission electron microscope (TEM) findings approve the synthesis of ZnO @ TiO2, displays an average particle size of 13 nm for ZnO particles, 20 nm of TiO2NPs, and 34 nm of the ZnO@TiO2 NPs. The anti-bacterial efficiency was assessed against the bacterial strains' Bacillus cereus, Proteus mirabilis. Our results discovered inhibition zone of 19 mm and12.50 mm for Bacillus cereus, Proteus mirabilis, correspondingly, when by ZnONPs. Whereas inhibition zone of 20.50 mm and 21.50 mm for Bacillus cereus, Proteus mirabilis, correspondingly, when by TiO2NPs. While with ZnO@TiO2NPs, result was better to 27.50 mm for Bacillus cereus and 24 mm for Proteus mirabilis. The antioxidant efficiency was assessed by DPPH, The results show have strong antioxidant activity for ZnO @ TiO2 core–shell than ZnONPs alone, TiO2NPs alone. Cytotoxicity assay established a significant reduction in cancer cell population pole 72hr. Cytotoxicity of ZnO@TiO2NPs on breast cancer cells was 90.23 %. Computational innovation of TiO2, ZnO and ZnO@TiO2 nanoparticles against breast cancer line gave the highest correlation value and RMSD between ZnO and 6NLV receptors from other nanocomposites.

Optical energy band gap investigation of the zinc carbide nanoparticles prepared by nanosecond pulsed laser ablation of zinc metals in hexane liquid medium

Many different applications make use of carbide nanoparticles, which could be prepared via conventional techniques, but all of these techniques tend to be intricate, and several steps must be completed before fabrication can begin. However, in this study, we present, for the first time, a straightforward technique for the production of zinc carbide nanoparticles (ZnC) through the use of nanosecond laser ablation of a zinc target immersed in hexane with the assistance of a purged nitrogen gas. We conducted optical absorption spectroscopy on the produced nanostructured materials. We studied the optical properties using the conventional method of the Tauc relation. We compared these values with various innovative approaches, including the absorption spectrum fitting method (ASF) and its derivative method (DASF). We conducted an investigation into each approach's correction to achieve a satisfactory level of agreement between the values, and documented a comparable pattern. These results help us understand the physicochemical properties of zinc carbide and other nanoparticles or nanocomposites that do not have any chemical residues. They make them a possible candidate to improve luminescence catalytic activity, photonics, and optoelectronic applications.

Versatile r.f. magnetron sputtering doping method to produce aluminum‐doped zinc oxide films

AbstractAluminum‐doped zinc oxide Al:ZnO (AZO) is a non‐toxic material applied as a transparent conductive oxide film. In this study, we report on the structural, optical, and electrical properties of AZO films obtained by thermally oxidizing aluminum‐doped Zn films produced by a versatile and low‐cost method of doping using the magnetron sputtering technique deposition. We use aluminum wire above the zinc target to produce Al:Zn films. The influence of r.f. power and different Al wire lengths on the AZO film properties were studied. The resulting AZO films exhibited Al concentrations of up to 2.85% and an optical gap between 3.22 and 3.29 eV. The transmittance was greater than 80% for all samples, and the electrical resistivity decreased by two orders of magnitude with Al doping. As a result, the sample with an aluminum concentration of approximately 1% had the lowest resistivity. In this work, it was possible to relate the lower resistivity with larger grain size and smaller concentrations of defects or vacancies.

Electric field-assisted laser ablation fabrication and assembly of zinc oxide/carbon nanocomposites into hierarchical structures for supercapacitor electrodes.

One of the major challenges in the field of electrochemical energy storage device performance improvement is the development of suitable synthetic materials for electrodes that can provide high power and high energy density features combined with their long-term stability. Here, we have developed a novel two-step approach based on DC glow discharge plasma pre-treatment of a carbon cloth substrate followed by electric field-assisted laser ablation for the synthesis of ZnO/C nanocomposites in a liquid and their simultaneous assembly into hierarchically organized nanostructures onto the pre-processed carbon cloth to produce a supercapacitor electrode. To form such nanostructures, a processed carbon cloth was included in the electrical circuit as a cathode during laser ablation of zinc in water, while a zinc target served as an anode. A series of studies have been performed to explore the structure, morphology, composition and electrochemical characteristics of the synthesized ZnO/C nanocomposites. Application of the external field provided additional possibilities for tuning the particle morphology. The parameters of the obtained nanostructures were shown to depend on the direction of the applied electric field and liquid composition. SEM studies revealed a nanoflower-like morphology of the prepared nanomaterial having potential in supercapacitor applications due to a large surface area. The ZnO/C nanoflowers, deposited onto a carbon cloth substrate, were tested for energy storage by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD) analysis. The results showed a pseudocapacitor behavior with a maximum specific capacitance of about 3045 F g-1 (at a scan rate of 1 mV s-1). These results demonstrate a promising storage efficiency of the synthesized ZnO/C nanocomposite as a material for supercapacitors.

Assessment of production of 66Ga via 66Zn(d,2n)66Ga reaction as a medical radioisotope using GEANT4, MCNPX and TALYS computer nuclear codes

66Ga due to its positron emitting and suitable half-life is a medical radioisotope that has been developed for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. While there are several production routes for 66Ga, in this study, production of gallium-66 via the 66Zn(d,2n)66Ga reaction was predicted by GEANT4 and MCNPX nuclear codes. SRIM and TALYS codes are also used in the calculation process. The ranges of deuteron particles in the zinc target are calculated by SRIM and GEANT4 are reported to be 426.64 and 428.08 μm in 16 MeV, respectively. The cross-section values of the reaction estimated by GEANT4 toolkit and four microscopic models of the TALYS code are very close to experimental data. Moreover, the values of 66Ga thick target yields in the zinc target for the energy of 16 MeV of incident deuteron are obtained to be 364.97, 523.11, and 506.6 μCi/μAh by GEANT4, TALYS, and MCNP codes, respectively. The small discrepancy between simulated results and experimental data illustrates that the applied nuclear codes are desirable tools for predicting nuclear reactions in various routes.

Separation of 64+67Cu(II) from irradiated natural zinc target by sodium alginate-polyacrylic acid/nanohalloysite composite

A sodium alginate-polyacrylic acid/nanohalloysite (Alg-PAA/NHA) composite was used to develop a fast and effective method for separating 64+67Cu(II) from a neutron-irradiated natural zinc target. Gamma radiation-induced graft copolymerization was used to prepare the Alg-PAA/NHA composite. Under ideal conditions, the grafting efficiency (GE%) of acrylic acid (AA) on the alginate/nanohalloysite (Alg/NHA) surface reached 99%. To validate the structural morphology and the mechanical properties of the synthesized composite, various analyses including FT-IR, SEM, TGA, and DTA were used. It is worth noting that the Alg-PAA/NHA composite demonstrated selective adsorption of Cu(II) ions over Zn(II) ions at pH 3 with an adsorption efficiency of approximately 86%. Using an acidic solution of 0.1 M HCl, the ionic exchange separation of 64+67Cu(II) from the irradiated Zn(II) target on an the Alg-PAA/NHA composite packed column effectively eluted 64+67Cu(II). For further purification, the eluted 64+67Cu(II) was loaded onto another cationic exchange column packed with Dowex 50 W X8. The radionuclidic, radiochemical, and chemical quality control tests confirmed that the obtained 64+67Cu(II) solution was highly pure and can be safely applied in cancer theranostics Applications.

A comparative study on the characteristics of nanosecond laser ablation zinc and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene targets

In this study, the influence of laser energy and pressure on propulsion performance of zinc and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is investigated by impulse measurement, fast exposure images, spectral diagnostics and target ablation. A Q-switched Nd:YAG laser with the wavelength of 1064 nm and pulse width of 6 ns is employed. The impulse and coupling coefficient generated by laser ablation ABS are greater than that of Zn, and they exhibit a similar variation trend with pressure. However, at higher pressure levels, the change in impulse versus laser energy is not completely coincident between Zn and ABS samples. The target property plays a significant role in the generation and propagation of plume related to the plasma parameters such as electron density and temperature. The temporal evolution images indicate that the plasma plume of laser-induced Zn presents a faster decay in comparison with that of ABS, which is ascribed to the fact that the gas temperature of ABS is higher than the electron temperature of Zn plasma in the local thermodynamical equilibrium. Also, the electron density is lower for Zn due to the rapid heat diffusion and higher ablation threshold of metal. It is found that the surface absorption is dominant for metal because the ablated crater of Zn performs larger diameter and shallower depth. On the contrary, the shrinkage in diameter but enhancement in depth of crater is observed from ABS surface, and the ablation mass is larger, suggesting the obvious volume absorption for polymer. The results reveal that the target property can engender an important effect on the energy conversion between laser, target and plasma.

Laser ablation mediated ZnO nanoparticles inhibit growth and biofilm forming potential of urinary tract bacterium Proteus mirabilis

Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (NPs) were formed via the laser ablation technique of a zinc (Zn) target immersed in deionised water (DIW). The optical, structural, and morphological features of these ZnO NPs were investigated using UV/Vis spectrophotometry, x-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy. XRD results of zinc oxide nanoparticles showed diffraction peaks at 32°, 34.5°, 36.5°, 57°, and 67° corresponding to the (100), (002), (101), (110) and (103). The average nanoparticle size was 21 nm. The TEM images of zinc oxide nanoparticles show that they are spherical in shape and have a size distribution of 20–70 nm. The antibacterial activity of the ZnO NPs was determined and compared with Ciprofloxacin against Proteus mirabilis isolates. The ZnO NPs have significant antibacterial activity against P. mirabilis isolates compared with the control (P ≤ 0.05), and the antibiofilm activity of ZnO NPs was sturdier than that of Ciprofloxacin (P ≤ 0.05). In addition, zinc oxide NPs were more effective than Ciprofloxacin in terms of preventing biofilm formation in the urinary catheter. This finding was confirmed by using atomic force microscopy to investigate the effect of ZnO NPs on bacterial biofilm formation in Foleys catheter (AFM). Therefore, ZnO NPs could be used as a preservative for Foleys catheter by preventing the formation of microbial biofilms. DPPH assay was used to investigate the radical scavenging potential of ZnO NPs.

14.77 MeV neutron-induced nuclear reaction cross sections for zinc, yttrium, and molybdenum targets* *S. D. Dhole and V. N. Bhoraskar gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance given by SERB-DST, New Delhi sanction number: EMR/2017/002497 for research in the field of neutron-induced nuclear reactions.

The cross sections for neutron-induced nuclear reactions on natural zinc, yttrium, and molybdenum targets were measured at a neutron energy of 14.77 ± 0.17 MeV using the activation technique, offline gamma-ray spectrometry, and a detailed covariance analysis. The uncertainty in the statistical model calculations of cross sections for the (n, 2n), (n, p), (n, α), and (n, γ) reactions with natural zinc, yttrium, and molybdenum at neutron energies from 13 to 17 MeV was calculated using the TALYS-1.96 nuclear code. The measured cross sections of the present study were compared with the experimental cross sections reported in the EXFOR database, the cross sections were calculated with the TALYS-1.96 and EMPIRE-3.2.3 nuclear codes and the evaluated nuclear data from the TENDL-2019, JENDL-5, and ENDF/B-VIII.0 libraries.

Zinc dynamics regulate early ovarian follicle development

Zinc fluctuations regulate key steps in late oocyte and preimplantation embryo development; however, roles for zinc in preceding stages in early ovarian follicle development, when cooperative interactions exist between the oocyte and somatic cells, are unknown. To understand the roles of zinc during early follicle development, we applied single cell X-ray fluorescence microscopy, a radioactive zinc tracer, and a labile zinc probe to measure zinc in individual mouse oocytes and associated somatic cells within early follicles. Here, we report a significant stage-specific increase and compartmental redistribution in oocyte zinc content upon the initiation of early follicle growth. The increase in zinc correlates with the increased expression of specific zinc transporters, including two that are essential in oocyte maturation. While oocytes in follicles exhibit high tolerance to pronounced changes in zinc availability, somatic survival and proliferation are significantly more sensitive to zinc chelation or supplementation. Finally, transcriptomic, proteomic, and zinc loading analyses reveal enrichment of zinc targets in the ubiquitination pathway. Overall, these results demonstrate that distinct cell type-specific zinc regulations are required for follicle growth and indicate that physiological fluctuation in the localization and availability of this inorganic cofactor has fundamental functions in early gamete development.

Ultrafast phase change speed and high thermal stability of antimony and zinc co-sputtering thin film for phase change random access memory application

In this work, we fabricate the Sb54Zn46 thin film by pure antimony and zinc targets co-sputtering and analyze its phase change properties. The ten-years data retention of Sb54Zn46 thin film, being a good reflection of thermal stability, is improved to 119 °C from 24 °C of pristine antimony thin film, which is much higher than that of the traditional phase change material Ge2Sb2Te5 (85 °C). The increased thermal stability of Sb54Zn46 thin film mainly derives from the formation of the strong Sb-Zn bond stretching mode during crystallization. In addition, the phase change speed of Sb54Zn46 thin film measured in device test increases to 10 ns, which is also much faster than that of the traditional phase change material Ge2Sb2Te5 (100 ns). These results illustrate that the fast phase change speed of Sb54Zn46 thin film is mainly ascribed to the Sb-rich atomic environment and the growth-dominant crystallization mechanism. Our work substantiates the co-sputtering Sb54Zn46 thin film can ensure fast phase change speed while effectively increasing its thermal stability.

Reactive laser interference patterning on titanium and zinc in high pressure CO2

Direct laser interference patterning (DLIP) is a versatile technique for surface patterning that enables formation of micro-nano sized periodic structures on top of the target material. In this study, DLIP in high pressure, supercritical and liquid CO2 by 4-beam DLIP was used to pattern titanium and zinc targets. Field emission scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy was used to characterize the patterned surfaces. Field emission SEM analysis showed presence of ordered uniform donut ring pattern with hollow centers for both titanium and zinc with a period slightly under 3 µm while topographical images from atomic force microscopy revealed donut rings protruding outwards typically around 200 nm from target surface and consisted of a crevice at the center with a depth typically around 300 nm and 250 nm for titanium and zinc target, respectively. Based on X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic analysis, this is the first study to report formation of TiO2, TiC, ZnCO3, and zinc hydroxy carbonate on the pattern by DLIP in supercritical and liquid CO2 for titanium and zinc targets. Pressurized CO2 is demonstrated as a promising environment with mirror-based DLIP system for reactive patterning. Due to the superior transport properties and solvent power of supercritical CO2, the current study opens possibilities for reactive patterning in environments that may not have been previously possible.

Production of GMP-Compliant Clinical Amounts of Copper-61 Radiopharmaceuticals from Liquid Targets.

PET imaging has gained significant momentum in the last few years, especially in the area of oncology, with an increasing focus on metal radioisotopes owing to their versatile chemistry and favourable physical properties. Copper-61 (t1/2 = 3.33 h, 61% β+, Emax = 1.216 MeV) provides unique advantages versus the current clinical standard (i.e., gallium-68) even though, until now, no clinical amounts of 61Cu-based radiopharmaceuticals, other than thiosemicarbazone-based molecules, have been produced. This study aimed to establish a routine production, using a standard medical cyclotron, for a series of widely used somatostatin analogues, currently labelled with gallium-68, that could benefit from the improved characteristics of copper-61. We describe two possible routes to produce the radiopharmaceutical precursor, either from natural zinc or enriched zinc-64 liquid targets and further synthesis of [61Cu]Cu-DOTA-NOC, [61Cu]Cu-DOTA-TOC and [61Cu]Cu-DOTA-TATE with a fully automated GMP-compliant process. The production from enriched targets leads to twice the amount of activity (3.28 ± 0.41 GBq vs. 1.84 ± 0.24 GBq at EOB) and higher radionuclidic purity (99.97% vs. 98.49% at EOB). Our results demonstrate, for the first time, that clinical doses of 61Cu-based radiopharmaceuticals can easily be obtained in centres with a typical biomedical cyclotron optimised to produce 18F-based radiopharmaceuticals.

Structural, optical and photoelectric properties of Tb doped ZnO thin films for device applications

In this work we have investigated the effect of thermal annealing of thin ZnO:Tb3+ films obtained by the combined method of electrochemical deposition of Tb ions onto silicon substrates and subsequent reactive magnetron sputtering of a zinc target on the substrates on the structural properties, optical and photoelectric properties. ZnO:Tb3+ films with annealing temperature up to 700 °C are close-packed structures without porosity, with an almost smooth surface and dense packing of crystallites. The crystallite size and film thickness increase insignificantly with increasing annealing temperature. The films under investigation exhibit strong green luminescence with three bands in the spectral region of ∼1.9–2.6 eV, caused by intracenter 4f transitions on Tb3+ ions without changing the redistribution in the relative intensity of three bands with an increase in the annealing temperature. The study of the photoelectric properties showed that with an increase in the bias voltage, the maximum of the spectral sensitivity in absolute value increases and shifts to the short-wavelength region, while with an increase in the annealing temperature, the photosensitivity decreases, and upon annealing at 1100 °C it is practically absent.

THERMAL ANNEALING OF MICRO-OXIDIZED ZINC NITRIDE SPUTTERED THIN FILMS FOR CONVERSION INTO CRYSTALLINE ZnO

Thermal oxidation and annealing of zinc nitride sputtered films are described in this paper. Zinc nitride films were produced by the sputtering a zinc target (99.999%) in the plasma, ignited in a mixture of Ar:N2 (20:10 sccm) gas at 60 W and working pressure of [Formula: see text][Formula: see text]mbar. The films were initially micro-annealed in H2O2 solution (35[Formula: see text]vol.%) at room temperature and subsequently in ambient air in the low temperature range of 100–[Formula: see text]C. The as-sputtered and annealed films were examined using X-ray diffraction (XRD), spectrophotometer, Raman and photoluminescence spectroscopies. Annealing oxidation leads to the transformation of the cubic crystal structure of zinc nitride into wurtzite ZnO through the oxygen diffusion process. The XRD peak of (002) plane and the principal [Formula: see text] (high) phonon mode, detected for the annealed film, are clear signature on the conversion of zinc nitride film into crystalline ZnO. The sputtered annealed film showed optical transmittance of 85% and average bandgap energy of 3.28[Formula: see text]eV due to the formation of ZnO. The presented method is appealing since it provides an easy two-step route to the conversion of zinc nitride film into ZnO with p-type behavior and tunable characteristics for various optoelectronic applications.

Preparation of Gold Nanoparticles Doped Zinc Oxide Using Reactive Pulsed Laser Ablation in Liquid

The effect of using an Nd: YAG laser tattoo removal (nanosecond pulses) to ablate pure gold targets to obtain gold nanorods and pure zinc targets to obtain zinc oxide nanoparticles was investigated separately in ethanol using an Nd: YAG laser tattoo removal (nanosecond pulses) and then mixing the resulting mixtures to obtain gold dopant with zinc oxide in this manuscript. Pure gold Nanorods, ZnO nanoparticles, and Au doped ZnO nanoparticles were characterized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), and optical properties. The qualities of the manufactured gold Nano highways were disclosed using XRD and TEM. According to the findings, gold Nanorods created by the 532 nm laser have outstanding optical, structural, and morphological features and can be used in a variety of sensors.

Physical Properties of Pure Gold Nanoparticles and Gold Doped ZnO Nanoparticles Using Laser Ablation in Liquid For Sensor Applications

In this paper, the effect of using laser ablation of pure gold targets to obtain gold Nano rods and for pure zinc targets to obtain zinc oxide nanoparticles was studied separately in ethanol using an Nd:YAG laser tattoo removal (nanosecond pulses) and then mixing the resulting mixtures to obtain gold dopant with zinc oxide. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), (XRD) X-Ray Diffraction and the optical properties were used to characterize the pure gold Nano rods, ZnO nanoparticles, and Au doped ZnO nanoparticles. Based on XRD and TEM, the results revealed the properties of the produced gold Nano roads. The obtained results indicated that the gold Nano rods produced by the 1064nm laser have superior optical, structural, and morphological properties and can be used in different sensors.

Investigation of ablation efficiency during the pulsed laser ablation of a zinc metal target in a distilled water environment

In this study, the effect of Nd:YAG laser energy with a 9 ns time duration as one of the important parameters on the laser ablation of a zinc metal target in a distilled water environment has been investigated both experimentally and theoretically. The influence of plasma shielding on the ablation rate for 100–600 mJ energies is also considered. After investigating XRD, SEM, and UV-Vis results of each sample, it is determined that synthesized nanostructures are ZnO nanoparticles, and also the morphologies of the synthesized nanostructures are formed in two forms of hexagonal crystals and amorphous nanosheets. By increasing the laser energy to 400 mJ, the ablation rate on the zinc target increases. However, with increasing energy up to 600 mJ, the plasma shielding effect is evident and the ablation rate is reduced. Also, the theoretical two-fluid heat transfer model of nanosecond pulsed laser ablation is developed to visualize the evolution of temperature distributions, crater profile, and ablation depth.