Zero-knowledge Proof Protocol Research Articles

Evaluation of trust service and software product regimes for zero-knowledge proof development under eIDAS 2.0

This paper delves into two legal models for zero-knowledge proof protocols in the context of the eIDAS 2.0 Regulation: a trust service or a software product. The ARIES: reliAble euRopean Identity EcoSystem EU project highlighted the need for a legal framework for stakeholders to accept proof of the existence of user data with legal certainty, while Hyperledger Indy shows that ZKP solutions are currently commercialized, stressing deficiencies in the eIDAS 2.0. An overview of ZKP applied to identity, its relationship to the European Digital Identity Wallet and the electronic attestations of attributes, both introduced by the eIDAS 2.0, and Self-Sovereign Identity systems, leads to the central question of proof of the existence of user-held data as a trust service or as a software product and its data privacy implications for each approach. Finally, we outline a possible solution based on the product approach for future work. Our findings reveal that ZKP technology must have legal value and a presumption system to be effective. However, the path we take could lead us either to develop a system of surveillance and control in electronic environments or to build an environment where we share not the data itself but proof of its existence.

TWO-FACTOR AUTHENTICATION PROTOCOL IN ACCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS

Background. To ensure the protection of the biometric access control system used in unsecured communication channels, it is necessary to exclude the storage and transfer, transfer of biometric data as well as sequences generated on their basis. The paper proposes a cryptographic protocol of two-factor authentication with the zero-knowledge over the extended field GF(2m) on elliptic curves using biometric data and the private key of the user.
 Objective. The aim of the article is to develop a cryptographic protocol for zero-knowledge two-factor authentication based on elliptic curves using biometric data and the user’s private key, which allows increasing cryptographic strength and reducing the duration of the authentication process.
 Methods. The process of implementing zero-knowledge proof protocols is as follows: one user (proofer) can convince another user (verifier) that he has some secret without disclosing the secret itself.
 Results. A cryptographic protocol for two-factor authentication with zero-knowledge over the extended field GF(2m) of elliptic curves using user biometric data is proposed, which significantly reduces the size of the protocol parameters and increases cryptographic strength (computational complexity of the breaking). There is no leakage of private key information and biometric data of the user during the execution of the zero-knowledge proof protocol.
 Conclusions. The implementation of a cryptographic protocol with zero-knowledge proof two-factor authentication based on elliptic curves allows significantly reducing the size of protocol parameters and increasing the cryptographic strength (computational complexity of the breaking).

Enhancing security in Fiat–Shamir transformation-based non-interactive zero-knowledge protocols for IoT authentication

With the rapid expansion of IoT devices and their applications, there is an increasing demand for efficient and secure authentication mechanisms to protect against unauthorized access. Traditional authentication mechanisms face limitations regarding computational speed, communication costs, and vulnerability to cyber-attacks. Zero-knowledge proof (ZKP) protocols have emerged as an effective solution for achieving secure and efficient authentication in such environments without revealing sensitive information. Among ZKP protocols, Σ\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\Sigma $$\\end{document}-protocols, a class of interactive ZKP protocols, have been employed for their efficiency and security. However, their interactive nature necessitates multiple rounds of communication, which can reduce efficiency and increase communication overhead for resource-constrained devices. Many works have aimed to eliminate the interaction of Σ\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\Sigma $$\\end{document}-protocols by utilizing a transformation called the Fiat–Shamir transformation (FST). However, there is still a concern regarding the soundness of the FST as it can sometimes convert a secure Σ\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\Sigma $$\\end{document}-protocol into an insecure non-interactive zero-knowledge (NIZK) authentication scheme. In this paper, we propose an approach for transforming Σ\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\Sigma $$\\end{document}-protocols into a NIZK protocol based on the FST, yielding significant enhancements in efficiency, communication overhead reduction, and elimination of interaction. Our proposed protocol enables the completion of the authentication process in a single request while also strengthening the soundness of Σ\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\Sigma $$\\end{document}-protocols in comparison with the traditional FST by requiring two authentication factors instead of one. To demonstrate our approach’s robustness, we conducted comprehensive informal and formal security analyses (using the Tamarin-Prover). Our protocol demonstrated completeness, soundness, zero-knowledge properties, and robustness against attacks, including eavesdropping, message modification, replay, and brute force attacks. Additionally, our performance analysis displayed a remarkable 50% improvement in computational cost compared to traditional Σ\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\Sigma $$\\end{document}-protocols, underscoring its efficiency for practical use.

Redactable consortium blockchain based on verifiable distributed chameleon hash functions

With the evolving application demands, the inherent immutability of consortium blockchains hinders their widespread adoption. For example, expired data stored on the chain cannot be deleted, and erroneous data cannot be redacted, seriously limiting the flexibility of consortium blockchains. However, existing redactable blockchain solutions need to be improved in aspects of decentralization, efficiency, and fault tolerance. This paper develops a new verifiable distributed chameleon hash (VDCH) function to solve the above problems. With VDCH, nodes share chameleon keys with a secure multi-party computation protocol based on a verifiable key-sharing scheme, and the collision shares can be verified with a Schnorr non-interactive zero-knowledge proof protocol, which enhances the fault tolerance of the consortium chain while maintaining its decentralized nature. Then, this paper proposes a consensus protocol called CVTSS based on verifiable threshold signatures, which provides protocol support for collaborative hash collision computation by multiple nodes using VDCH, thus avoiding the dependence on Nakamoto consensus and improving the redaction efficiency. Meanwhile, CVTSS uses threshold signatures to prevent malicious nodes from tampering with data using one-time chameleon keys. Finally, this paper constructs an efficient, practical, and secure redactable consortium chain scheme based on VDCH and CVTSS. Theoretical analysis and experimental results show that the proposed scheme can operate safely in the presence of malicious nodes with an acceptable time cost.

Advancing Healthcare Security: A Cutting-Edge Zero-Trust Blockchain Solution for Protecting Electronic Health Records

The effective management of electronic health records (EHRs) is vital in healthcare. However, traditional systems often need help handling data inconsistently, providing limited access, and coordinating poorly across facilities. This study aims to tackle these issues using blockchain technology to improve EHR systems' data security, privacy, and interoperability. By thoroughly analyzing blockchain's applications in healthcare, we propose an innovative solution that leverages blockchain's decentralized and immutable nature, combined with advanced encryption techniques such as the Advanced Encryption Standard and Zero Knowledge Proof Protocol, to fortify EHR systems. Our research demonstrates that blockchain can effectively overcome significant EHR challenges, including fragmented data and interoperability problems, by facilitating secure and transparent data exchange, leading to enhanced coordination, care quality, and cost-efficiency across healthcare facilities. This study offers practical guidelines for implementing blockchain technology in healthcare, emphasizing a balanced approach to interoperability, privacy, and security. It represents a significant advancement over traditional EHR systems, boosting security and affording patients greater control over their health records. Doi: 10.28991/HIJ-2023-04-03-012 Full Text: PDF

Enhancing Post-Quantum Cryptography: Exploring Mathematical Foundations and Comparative Analysis of Different Cryptographic Algorithm

Abstract: This research paper surveys the landscape of cryptography, encompassing historical origins and modern applications. Beginning with foundational concepts, it explores encryption, decryption, ciphers, and keys, spanning symmetric and asymmetric cryptography. Historical context unfolds, tracing cryptography from ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs to Julius Caesar's cipher. The study then transitions to contemporary subjects. Elliptic Curves and Cryptography are investigated, showcasing their significance in secure communication, demonstrating ECC key exchange and AES-GCM encryption using python and Comparative analysis of ECC, RSA, and Diffie-Hellman sheds light on their performance. Zero-Knowledge Proofs are introduced as tools for privacy-preserving verification followed by an exploration of various Zero-Knowledge Proof (ZKP) protocols. By presenting practical implementation examples using Python, the paper illustrates how these proofs can be applied in real-world scenarios. Random Number Generation is examined and distinction between pseudorandom number generators (PRNGs) and cryptographically secure PRNGs (CSPRNGs) is emphasized conducting a thorough comparative analysis of PRNGs and CSPRNGs, considering factors like correlation, independence, periodicity, and entropy. Furthermore, the section evaluates the performance of different random number generation techniques. Fully Homomorphic Encryption emerges as a groundbreaking concept, discussing its mathematical properties, practical implementation, parameter selection, and optimization techniques enabling computation on encrypted data. Cryptographic Secret Sharing Schemes are explored for secure information distribution. The paper concludes by delving into the Chinese Remainder Theorem's applications within modern cryptographic protocols, particularly in RSA decryption and the integration factorization process of the RSA public key cryptosystem. It also provides a comprehensive overview of the theoretical foundations of primality testing, a pivotal aspect of the RSA algorithm. Overall, this research paper provides a comprehensive exploration of cryptography's historical context, core concepts, advanced techniques, and practical implementations, offering valuable insights into the realm of secure communication

Physical ZKP protocols for Nurimisaki and Kurodoko

Proving to someone else the knowledge of a secret without revealing any of its information is an interesting feature in cryptography. The best solution to solve this problem is a Zero-Knowledge Proof (ZKP) protocol.Nurimisaki is a Nikoli puzzle. The goal of this game is to draw a kind of abstract painting (“Nuri”) that represents a sea with some capes (“Misaki”) of an island (represented by white cells). For this, the player has to fulfill cells of a grid in black (representing the sea) in order to draw some capes while respecting some simple rules. One of the specificity of the rules of this game is that every “Misaki” cell can only have one white neighbor.Kurodoko is also a Nikoli puzzle where some cells need to be blackened in order to ensure that each numbered cell is surrounded by the same number of white cells in the four directions (north, east, south, and west).Both of these puzzles, Nurimisaki and Kurodoko, share a common connectivity constraint. Using a deck of cards, we propose a physical ZKP protocol for each of the two puzzles above. Our protocols prove that a player knows a solution of (1) a Nurimisaki grid, or (2) a Kurodoko grid, without revealing any information about the solution.

Zero Knowledge Proof for SNAP (Standar Nasional OPEN API Pembayaran) in Indonesia

SNAP (Standar Nasional OPEN API Pembayaran) is an implementation of open banking for encouraging digital transformation in the banking industry. SNAP was submitted by several sub-working groups formed jointly by ASPI and the Bank of Indonesia. In the document Pedoman Tata Kelola (Bank of Indonesia, n.d.), there is already a customer data protection mechanism between the bank, the owner of Open API, and the user of Open API. However, there is no data protection process carried out by consumers so third parties, that use the Open API of the bank, do not need to know the customer's data. Based on the web3 protocol, users can store data and transmit only in encrypted form which can only be opened by calculating the data with a pre-agreed smart contract. Banks can work like a decentralized network on web3, where the process of calculating proof and witness is carried out by the bank. Proof and witness are calculated using a zero-knowledge proof protocol, making it difficult to duplicate. For this reason, we propose a new architecture using smart contracts between banks and customers using the ZK-SNARK method. Therefore, there is no significant performance difference between using ZK-SNARK and without ZK-SNARK in the API call process.

Zk-AuthFeed: Protecting Data Feed to Smart Contracts With Authenticated Zero Knowledge Proof

The emerging blockchain technology, combined with the smart contract paradigm, is expected to transform traditional applications with decentralization. When the blockchain technology is applied to decentralize traditional applications, blockchain validators may need to take in sensitive <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">off-chain</i> data to execute a smart contract. On the one hand, decentralized applications (DApps) require authentic off-chain input data to correctly execute a given business procedure. On the other hand, users are reluctant to expose their sensitive privacy on the blockchain. For example, for a decentralized medical insurance DApp that takes as input personal health data, it is critical to guarantee authenticity and privacy of the data sent to the smart contract, such that the data can be verified by validators without leaking sensitive information. However, no satisfactory solution has been proposed to attain privacy and authenticity at the same time. In this work, we first present a highly efficient authenticated zero knowledge proof protocol called zk-DASNARK by extending the classical zk-SNARK scheme with data authentication. Based on zk-DASNARK, we design zk-AuthFeed, a zero-knowledge authenticated off-chain data feed scheme to achieve both data privacy and authenticity for blockchain-based DApps. Following the strategy of “compute off-chain and verify on-chain”, zk-AuthFeed can significantly reduce computation cost of blockchain validators. We fully implement a prototype of zk-AuthFeed, and conduct comprehensive experiments on a medical insurance DApp. We consider 4 typical computation models for insurance premium/reimbursement in the experiments. It shows that zk-AuthFeed is highly efficient: key generation takes about 10 seconds only, proof generation takes less than 4 seconds, and proof verification takes less than 40 ms.

A Self-Sovereign Identity Based on Zero-Knowledge Proof and Blockchain

Systems for generating and managing digital identities are in the process of being transformed to improve data sharing security and increase decentralization. Addressing both issues, a theoretical solution to create and manage Self-Sovereign Identities (SSI) is proposed using two Zero-Knowledge Proof (ZKP) protocols based on the discrete logarithm difficulty. Automorphism group properties are introduced to link several identities, their identifiers and attributes to produce a proof. The proposed SSI protocol does not encounter the problem of reusing the same secret key as in the case of the initial ZKP Schnorr protocol. The designed protocol ensures minimal disclosure of information to a single trusted third party. In addition, it allows zero disclosure of information to service providers requiring proof of authentication or identification. Such a SSI protocol is compliant with Electronic IDentification And Trust Services (eIDAS) as well as General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) regulations.

Implementation and Optimization of Zero-Knowledge Proof Circuit Based on Hash Function SM3

With the increasing demand for privacy protection in the blockchain, the universal zero-knowledge proof protocol has been developed and widely used. Because hash function is an important cryptographic primitive in a blockchain, the zero-knowledge proof of hash preimage has a wide range of application scenarios. However, it is hard to implement it due to the transformation of efficiency and execution complexity. Currently, there are only zero-knowledge proof circuits of some widely used hash functions that have been implemented, such as SHA256. SM3 is a Chinese hash function standard published by the Chinese Commercial Cryptography Administration Office for the use of electronic authentication service systems, and hence might be used in several cryptographic applications in China. As the national cryptographic hash function standard, the zero-knowledge proof circuit of SM3 (Chinese Commercial Cryptography) has not been implemented. Therefore, this paper analyzed the SM3 algorithm process, designed a new layered circuit structure, and implemented the SM3 hash preimage zero-knowledge proof circuit with a circuit size reduced by half compared to the automatic generator. Moreover, we proposed several extended practical protocols based on the SM3 zero-knowledge proof circuit, which is widely used in blockchain.

Exploiting Zero Knowledge Proof and Blockchains Towards the Enforcement of Anonymity, Data Integrity and Privacy (ADIP) in the IoT

In recent years, the Internet of Things (IoT) has been contemplated as the next technological advancement in the era of data communication and networking. However, although hundreds of new IoT platforms are introduced to the market every few months, the security of IoT ecosystems is still not fully understood. This paper discloses the architecture of a multilayer, multimode security system for the IoT. The proposed system is capable of providing multiple security solutions that support anonymous authentication, device privacy, data integrity, device sybil attack detection and IoT server spoofing attack detection. For IoT access control and authentication, our system can support two modes of operations, with one mode endorsing device privacy protection over the network and the second mode relinquishing device identity to establish data tracing during safety-critical IoT events. The new security system includes two innovative crypto approaches, zero knowledge proof (ZKP) and blockchains. IoT device anonymity was achieved via the multimode ZKP protocol, while data integrity and protection against sybil and IoT spoofing attacks were maintained via blockchains. Our threat analysis models showed that data modification and data injection attacks are not feasible. Probabilistic modeling of an IoT spoofing attack was performed in this paper, and the results show that our security system provides high resiliency against such attacks, with a probability approaching 1.

Towards a Blockchain-Based Peer-to-Peer Energy Marketplace

Blockchain technology is used as a distributed ledger to store and secure data and perform transactions between entities in smart grids. This paper proposes a platform based on blockchain technology and the multi-agent system paradigm to allow for the creation of an automated peer-to-peer electricity market in micro-grids. The use of a permissioned blockchain network has multiple benefits as it reduces transaction costs and enables micro-transactions. Moreover, an improvement in security is obtained, eliminating the single point of failure in the control and management of the platform along with creating the possibility to trace back the actions of the participants and a mechanism of identification. Furthermore, it provides the opportunity to create a decentralized and democratic energy market while complying with the current legislation and regulations on user privacy and data protection by incorporating Zero-Knowledge Proof protocols and ring signatures.

A Blockchain Secured Pharmaceutical Distribution System to Fight Counterfeiting.

Counterfeiting drugs has been a global concern for years. Considering the lack of transparency within the current pharmaceutical distribution system, research has shown that blockchain technology is a promising solution for an improved supply chain system. This study aims to explore the current solution proposals for distribution systems using blockchain technology. Based on a literature review on currently proposed solutions, it is identified that the secrecy of the data within the system and nodes’ reputation in decision making has not been considered. The proposed prototype uses a zero-knowledge proof protocol to ensure the integrity of the distributed data. It uses the Markov model to track each node’s ‘reputation score’ based on their interactions to predict the reliability of the nodes in consensus decision making. Analysis of the prototype demonstrates a reliable method in decision making, which concludes with overall improvements in the system’s confidentiality, integrity, and availability. The result indicates that the decision protocol must be significantly considered in a reliable distribution system. It is recommended that the pharmaceutical distribution systems adopt a relevant protocol to design their blockchain solution. Continuous research is required further to increase performance and reliability within blockchain distribution systems.

Card-Based ZKP for Connectivity: Applications to Nurikabe, Hitori, and Heyawake

During the last years, several card-based Zero-Knowledge Proof (ZKP) protocols for Nikoli’s puzzles have been designed. Although there are relatively simple card-based ZKP protocols for a number of puzzles, such as Sudoku and Kakuro, some puzzles face difficulties in designing simple protocols. For example, Slitherlink requires novel and elaborate techniques to construct a protocol. In this study, we focus on three Nikoli puzzles: Nurikabe, Hitori, and Heyawake. To date, no card-based ZKP protocol for these puzzles has been developed, partially because they have a relatively tricky rule that colored cells should form a connected area (namely a polyomino); this rule, sometimes referred to as “Bundan-kin” (in Japanese), complicates the puzzles, as well as facilitating difficulties in designing card-based ZKP protocols. We address this challenging task and propose a method for verifying the connectivity of hidden colored cells in a ZKP manner, such that we construct card-based ZKP protocols for the three puzzles.

Two Standard Decks of Playing Cards are Sufficient for a ZKP for Sudoku

Sudoku is a famous logic puzzle where the player has to fill a number between 1 and 9 into each empty cell of a $9 \times 9$ grid such that every number appears exactly once in each row, each column, and each $3 \times 3$ block. In 2020, Sasaki et al. developed a physical card-based protocol of zero-knowledge proof (ZKP) for Sudoku, which enables a prover to convince a verifier that he/she knows a solution of the puzzle without revealing it. Their protocol uses 90 cards, but requires nine identical copies of some cards, which cannot be found in a standard deck of playing cards (consisting of 52 different cards and two jokers). Hence, nine identical standard decks are required to perform that protocol, making the protocol not very practical. In this paper, we propose a new ZKP protocol for Sudoku that can be performed using only two standard decks of playing cards, regardless of whether the two decks are identical or different. In general, we also develop the first ZKP protocol for a generalized $n \times n$ Sudoku that can be performed using a deck of all different cards.

Physical zero-knowledge proof and NP-completeness proof of Suguru puzzle

Suguru is a paper and pencil puzzle invented by Naoki Inaba. The goal of the game is to fill a grid with numbers between 1 and 5 while respecting three simple constraints. We first prove the NP-completeness of Suguru puzzle. For this we design gadgets to encode the PLANAR-CIRCUIT-SAT in a Suguru grid. We then design a physical Zero-Knowledge Proof (ZKP) protocol for Suguru. This ZKP protocol allows a prover to prove that he knows a solution of a Suguru grid to a verifier without leaking any information on the solution. To construct such a physical ZKP protocol, we only rely on a few physical cards and adapted encoding. For a Suguru grid with n cells, we only use 5n+5 cards. Moreover, we prove the three classical security properties of a ZKP: completeness, extractability, and zero-knowledge.

How to construct physical zero-knowledge proofs for puzzles with a “single loop” condition

We propose a technique to construct physical Zero-Knowledge Proof (ZKP) protocols for puzzles that require a single loop draw feature. Our approach is based on the observation that a loop has only one hole and this property remains stable by some simple transformations. Using this trick, we can transform a simple big loop, which is visible to anyone, into the solution loop by using transformations that do not disclose any information about the solution. We illustrate our technique by applying it to construct physical ZKP protocols for two Nikoli puzzles: Slitherlink and Masyu.

A Blockchain-Based Sealed-Bid e-Auction Scheme with Smart Contract and Zero-Knowledge Proof

e-Auction improves the efficiency of bid transaction. However, the protection of bidders’ privacy, transaction fairness and verifiability, transaction data security, high cost of third-party auction center, and other issues have attracted more attention. According to the transaction process and basic principles of the sealed auction, we explored the problems existing in the current sealed-bid e-auction schemes. Based on the blockchain technology, we proposed a sealed-bid e-auction scheme with smart contract technology, Bulletproofs zero-knowledge proof protocols, and Pedersen commitment algorithm. The proposed scheme constructed an auction mechanism without the third-party auctioneer so as to restrict the behaviors of auction parties for the sake of auction security, reliability, fairness, and privacy protection. Compared with the related sealed e-auction schemes based on blockchain technologies in six metrics, we conducted the experiment to show that the proposed scheme protected the bid information from leakage well and successfully verified the winning bid price and the related bidder by all transaction participants without the third-party auctioneer.

LiteZKP: Lightening Zero-Knowledge Proof-Based Blockchains for IoT and Edge Platforms

This article presents <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> LiteZKP <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> a framework for supporting multiple anonymous payments using a smart contract-based zero-knowledge proof (ZKP) protocol on resource-limited devices. Specifically, to address challenges related to minimizing the computational overhead and offer a fully anonymous system, <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> LiteZKP <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> includes novel schemes such a new merkle tree mechanism to reduce the burden of ZKP operations, and integrates smart contract-based ZKP with an off-chain payment channel to reduce the amount of ZKP operations when performing continuous data exchange. We present evaluation results of <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> LiteZKP <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> from both PC-scale and resource-limited client devices and our results suggest that <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> LiteZKP <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"/> reduces the latency and energy consumption by more than 55% on Internet of Things (IoT)/mobile edge computing platforms, while requiring only 8% of block processing fee compared to a naive ZKP-based scheme.