Zealand Residents Research Articles

Air travel and fatal pulmonary embolism

Although long-distance air travel is commonly regarded as a risk factor for venous thromboembolism, the risk of clinically important events has not been well defined. We estimated the absolute risk of dying from pulmonary embolism following long-distance air travel in a national population-based descriptive study of 121 men and women who were aged 15-59 years (the age range in which the majority of international arrivals are found) and whose underlying cause of death was certified as codes 415.1, 451, or 453 of the International Classification of Diseases (ninth revision). Eleven cases had undertaken long-distance air travel in the four weeks before the onset of the fatal episode. The estimated risks of fatal pulmonary embolism following a flight of at least three hours' duration were 0.5 (95% CI 0.2-1.2) and 0.6 (95% CI 0.2-1.4) per million arrivals for overseas visitors and New Zealand residents, respectively. For air travel of more than eight hours' duration, the risk in New Zealand residents was 1.3 (95% CI 0.4-3.0) per million arrivals. We also conducted a case-control study based on those cases who were normally resident in New Zealand and registered on the electoral roll (n = 99). For each case, four controls matched for sex, age, and electorate, were randomly selected from the electoral roll. In the key analysis (based on 88 cases and 334 controls), the adjusted odds ratio for travellers who had flown for more than eight hours was 7.9 (95% CI 1.1-55.1) compared with those who did not undertake a long-distance flight. Long-distance air travellers have a higher risk of dying from pulmonary embolism than non-travellers, but the absolute risk in people aged 15-59 years appears to be very small.

Effect of previously failed kidney transplantation on peritoneal dialysis outcomes in the Australian and New Zealand patient populations

There is limited information about the outcomes of patients commencing peritoneal dialysis (PD) after failed kidney transplantation. The aim of the present study was to compare patient survival, death-censored technique survival and peritonitis-free survival between patients initiating PD after failed renal allografts and those after failed native kidneys. The study included all patients from the ANZDATA Registry who started PD between April 1, 1991 and March 31, 2004. Times to death, death-censored technique failure and first peritonitis episode were examined by multivariate Cox proportional hazards models. For all outcomes, conditional risk set models were utilized for the multiple failure data, and analyses were stratified by failure order. Standard errors were calculated by using robust variance estimation for the cluster-correlated data. In total, 13,947 episodes of PD were recorded in 23,579 person-years. Of these, 309 PD episodes were started after allograft failure. Compared with PD patients who had never undergone kidney transplantation, those with failed renal allografts were more likely to be younger, Caucasian, New Zealand residents and life-long non-smokers with lower body mass index (BMI), poorer initial renal function and a longer period from commencement of the first renal replacement therapy to PD. On multivariate analysis, PD patients with failed kidney transplants had comparable patient mortality [weighted hazards ratio (HR) 1.09, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.81-1.45, P = 0.582], death-censored technique failure (adjusted HR 0.91, 95% CI 0.75-1.10, P = 0.315) and peritonitis-free survival (adjusted HR 0.92, 95% CI 0.72-1.16, P = 0.444) with those PD patients who had failed native kidneys. Similar findings were observed in a subset of patients (n = 5496) for whom peritoneal transport status was known and included in the models as a covariate. Patients commencing PD after renal allograft failure experienced outcomes comparable with those with failed native kidneys. PD appears to be a viable option for patients with failed kidney allografts.

Asthma phenotypes in Niue Islanders

The aim of this study was to identify asthma phenotypes in patients of Niue Island ancestry that might be suitable for susceptibility gene mapping studies. Two hundred and sixteen Niue Islanders with physician-diagnosed asthma that was not secondary to other medical conditions were recruited through community organisations. Fifty-one of the subjects with asthma were resident on Niue Island and 165 in New Zealand. Each subject was interviewed and tested for atopy, serum [IgE] (5% quantile, median, 95% quantile) and lung function. There were two groups of subjects defined by an age of onset of asthma less than 12 years of age (childhood-onset, boys:girls 64:65) and greater than 12 years of age (adult-onset, men:women 11:76). A positive response (wheal > 3 mm) to at least one aeroallergen was seen in 181 patients, with 168/181 (92.8%) responding to house dust mite. Twenty-eight subjects with asthma were non-atopic (no detectable wheal) and the atopy status of seven subjects with asthma could not be determined (wheal < 3 mm). In childhood-onset asthma, serum IgE levels were higher (P < 0.0001) in subjects with atopic than in subjects with non-atopic asthma. In adult-onset asthma, serum IgE levels were higher (P < 0.0001) in subjects with atopic asthma than in either subjects with non-atopic asthma or matched non-atopic subjects without asthma. The asthma phenotypes in Niue Island and New Zealand residents were similar. Both atopic and non-atopic asthma phenotypes exist in Niue Islanders resident in Niue and New Zealand. The potential for mapping asthma susceptibility genes in this isolated population is discussed.

Selenium and iodine intakes and status in New Zealand and Australia.

Most New Zealand soils contain relatively low concentrations of the anionic trace elements F, I and Se. Some areas of Australia also have a history of I deficiency. In view of current interest in establishing nutrient reference intakes for Se and I in New Zealand and Australia, it is timely to review current understanding of the intakes and status of these two elements. In spite of a recent increase in Se status, the status of New Zealanders remains low compared with populations of many other countries and may still be considered marginal, although the clinical consequences of the marginal Se status are unclear. There are no recent reports of blood Se levels in Australia, but earlier reports indicate that they were generally greater than those of New Zealanders. Similarly, the consequences of decreasing I status in Australia and New Zealand are unclear. Mild I deficiency in New Zealand has resulted in enlarged thyroid glands indicating an increased risk of goitre. Currently there is little evidence, however, of any associated clinical disease. Public health recommendations to reduce salt intake, together with the reduction in I content of dairy products, are likely to result in further decreases in the I status of New Zealand and Australian residents. Some action is needed to prevent this decline and it may be necessary to consider other means of fortification than iodized salt. The consequences of possible interactions between Se and I in human nutrition are also unclear and no practical recommendations can be made.

Moving to Jobs?

This paper examines whether New Zealand residents move from low-growth to high-growth regions, using New Zealand census data from the past three inter-censal periods (covering 1986-2001). We focus on the relationship between employment growth and migration flows to gauge the strength of the relationship and the stability of the relationship over the business cycle. We find that people move to areas of high employment growth, but that the probability of leaving a region is less strongly related to that region's fortunes. We also find that migration flows to the metropolitan regions of Auckland, Canterbury and Wellington include a higher proportion of international immigrants compared with the rest of New Zealand.

Quality and Congestion in Environmental Goods: The Road to the Wangapeka

An increasing complaint heard among New Zealand residents is that their enjoyment of local environmental resources is being diminished by increased congestion from foreign visitors. This paper considers a model of vertical differentiation in which foreign high-value and domestic low-value consumers incur congestion costs in using a common resource. We demonstrate that reducing quality in the face of increased foreign demand is optimal absent discriminatory prices (but not otherwise). We also consider the provision of multiple environmental goods and demonstrate that providing differential qualities may be optimal even if domestic consumers do not use the high-quality resources at all.

Scoping the Extent of Tourist Road Safety: Motor Vehicle Transport Accidents in New Zealand 1982-1996

There is a growing interest in tourism safety within the travel medicine and safety management literature. From this body of research, motor vehicle traffic accidents (MVTA) are identified as a leading cause of tourist morbidity and mortality. There is, however, a dearth of tourist road safety literature where the tourism context is taken into account. This paper examines the extent of overseas visitor MVTA in New Zealand, based on data collected by the New Zealand Health Information Service for the 15-year period 1982–1996. Some 1604 MVTA cases were recorded in the NZHIS database for non-New Zealand residents, representing 27.4% of all non-resident injuries resulting in hospitalisation during the period of the study. The majority of these incidents involved collisions between vehicles, with 1121 (70% of MVTA cases) involving a car. Highest counts of MVTA were found for males and females in the 20–39 years age range. Largest proportions of MVTA were observed for the Auckland, Otago and Southland regions, although highest incidence rates (based on visitor numbers in each region for the year 1995/6) were found for the Taranaki, Northland, Marlborough, Hawkes Bay and Southland regions. The paper discusses possible reasons for patterns and trends in the MVTA data, drawing on comparisons with existing international studies from the travel medicine and safety management literature.

Research Note: Addressing Tourism Public Policy Issues through Attitude Segmentation of Host Communities

Resident attitudes are important in identifying the impact of tourism within communities and in determining local policy, planning and management responses for the development of tourism. Additionally, tourism policies established are vital for the marketing of cities, regions and countries. This paper examines tourism public policy, with particular reference to the importance of addressing host community interests and involving host communities in public policy decision making. It outlines a segmentation study undertaken on New Zealand residents' views on tourism and how these segments can be applied to tourism policy making.

Urinary iodine and thyroid status of New Zealand residents

The aim of this project was to assess the clinical significance of our low iodine excretions in terms of thyroid hormone status and thyroid volume in an adult population in a low soil iodine area of the South Island of New Zealand. Two-hundred and thirty-three residents of Otago, New Zealand collected two 24 h urine samples for assessment of iodine status. Thyroid status was determined from serum total T(4), TSH and thyroglobulin, and thyroid volumes. Relationships between urinary iodide excretion and measures of thyroid status were determined and subjects were allocated to one of three groups according to low, medium and high iodide excretion, for comparison of thyroid hormones and thyroid volumes. Significant correlations were found for relationships between measures of urinary iodide excretion and thyroid volume and thyroglobulin. Multiple regression analysis of data for subjects divided into three groups according to 24 h urinary iodide excretion (<60, 60-90; >90 microg iodide/day) or iodide/creatinine ratio (<40; 40-60; >60 microg/g Cr) showed significant differences in thyroid volume (P=0.029; P=0.035, respectively) and thyroglobulin (P=0.019; P=0.005, respectively) among the groups. The results of this study confirm the low iodide excretions of Otago residents, and indicate that the fall in iodine status is being reflected in clinical measures of thyroid status, including enlarged thyroid glands and elevated thyroglobulin. Our observations suggest the possible re-emergence of mild iodine deficiency and goitres in New Zealand. This situation is likely to worsen should iodine intakes continue to fall and continued monitoring of the situation is imperative.

Tourism Destination Loyalty

Despite the widespread acceptance that loyalty is a major driving force in successful companies, tourism destination loyalty has not been investigated. This study explores the application and usefulness of destination loyalty. Based on the brand loyalty literature, a number of loyalty measurements are suggested. The application of two measurement approaches to primary data on lifelong travel patterns by New Zealand residents indicate their validity. Through the collection and analysis of data on tourists’ destination loyalty, destinations will be able to determine the composition of its customers with respect to their destination loyalty. It will also facilitate a better forecasting and demand estimation.

The Labor Market Performance of European Immigrants in New Zealand in the 1980s and 1990s.

Ever since New Zealand became a British colony in 1840, it has attracted considerable numbers of European migrants. In the 1996 Population Census, 80 percent of the 3.6 million New Zealand residents claim European ethnic descent. While European immigration always has been, and continues to be, dominated by the UK, some noticeable Dutch immigration took place since 1950. Beginning in the 1960s, the overall share of European migration started a downward trend, with more and more immigrants arriving from the Pacific Islands and Asia.

Travel horizon: a valuable analysis tool?

This paper tests the usefulness of Schmidhauser's (1976/1977) travel horizon concept in analysing travel behavior and accumulated travel experience. Based on a pilot study of New Zealand residents it shows that the concept appears valid, as the travel horizon of the respondents had expanded as proposed by Schmidhauser. However, it is here argued that the concept of travel horizons needs to be modified in order to reflect long-term travel patterns and, therefore, the concept of destination zone horizons is suggested, which recognizes that an individual can ascend as well as descend on the horizon ladder. Destination zone horizons can be used by destinations' marketing organizations in segmenting their market for a greater effectiveness of their marketing efforts.

Service attributes of travel agencies: A comparative perspective of users and providers

This study compares residents' perception of travel agency service attributes' importance with travel agents' beliefs as to what their customers find important. Based on the responses from 266 travel agents and 405 New Zealand residents, the study concludes that there is a wide gap between residents' perceptions and travel agents' beliefs. It is argued that travel agents need to be more aware of what their clients actually want in order to remain competitive and to ensure their long-term viability. Few significant differences were found between different types of travel agencies. However, the segmentation of residents into users and non-users yielded a large number of significant differences based on the mean score results but few differences in attribute rank order.

A comparison of residents' attitudes towards tourism in 10 New Zealand destinations

A comprehensive investigation was carried out into New Zealand residents' perceptions of tourism. Qualitative research was conducted and, in addition to an extensive literature review, formed the basis of the survey instrument. The resulting mail questionnaire was used to survey residents from 10 towns. These towns were selected to provide a representation of places with different roles and levels of involvement with the tourism industry. The article offers a brief background to for each of the destinations surveyed and presents the main findings. Significant differences between towns are examined and a multidimensional scaling approach is used to provide an overall summary of the results. Implications are discussed in the context of how residents' perceptions will affect the future management of tourist destinations at various stages of development.

Iodine status of New Zealand residents as assessed by urinary iodide excretion and thyroid hormones

The aims of this study were (1) to compare various measures of I status, and (2) to assess urinary I and thyroid hormone status of residents of two areas of New Zealand where, before the iodization of salt, goitre was endemic due to low soil I. A total of 189 subjects (102 males, eighty-seven females) were recruited from the Dunedin Blood Transfusion Centre, and 144 (sixty-seven males, seventy-seven females) from the Waikato Blood Transfusion Centre between November 1993 and June 1994. Blood was taken for thyroid hormone assays, and subjects collected a fasting overnight urine specimen, a double-voided fasting urine sample, and a complete 24 h specimen for iodide and creatinine analyses. Positive correlations (P < 0.0001) between daily iodide excretion and iodide concentrations in fasting and double-voided fasting urines, identical median values for iodide concentrations in the three samples, and similar numbers of subjects classified as at risk from I deficiency disorders according to the International Committee for the Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders/World Health Organization categories (World Health Organization, 1994) confirmed indications from earlier studies that fasting urine samples were suitable for population studies. However 24 h urinary iodide excretion remains the recommended measure for individual I status. Waikato residents excreted more iodide in urine and all measures were significantly greater than for Otago residents. However median urinary iodide excretions for both areas (60 and 76 microgram/d for Otago and Waikato respectively) were considerably lower than those reported previously for New Zealand. Thyroid hormone concentrations were within normal ranges. Our findings suggest that I status of New Zealanders may no longer be considered adequate and may once again be approaching levels of intake associated with clinical I deficiency.

An Evaluation of Urinary Measures of Iodine and Selenium Status

The aim of this study was to establish methodology for a survey of the iodine and selenium status of New Zealand residents, more specifically to investigate the correlation between fasting or random casual urine samples and 24 hour urines for iodine and selenium excretion. Sixty-two (31 M, 31 F) adults collected casual, fasting and 24 hour urine samples for analysis of iodide, selenium and creatinine. Plasma and serum samples were collected for analysis of selenium and glutathione peroxidase activity. Results indicated that fasting urine samples, but not casual urines, may give a reasonable estimate of urinary output of iodine and selenium on a population basis, but that 24 hour urines are necessary for diagnosis of iodine deficiency in an individual and for research purposes. The results for iodine also give no support for expressing iodine as the iodide-creatinine ratio, although there was some indication that the selenium-creatinine ratio might be useful. Significant correlations between total daily excretion of selenium and iodine and also for urinary concentrations of the two trace elements in fasting and in 24 hour urine specimens may reflect a relationship of selenium and iodine to body size which may have implications for dietary requirements of these trace elements. Alternatively the correlations may reflect a relationship between dietary intake of the two trace elements in a country in which food concentrations are low, and this needs further investigation.

Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 is related to physical activity and ethnicity but not obesity in a multicultural workforce.

Recent research suggests that body vitamin D levels are decreased in coronary heart disease and diabetes, but it is unclear which cardiovascular risk factors are related to vitamin D status. To examine the relation between vitamin D status and major cardiovascular risk factors. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3, a marker of recent sun exposure and vitamin D status, was measured in 390 New Zealand residents (95 Pacific Islanders, 74 Maori and 221 others mostly of European descent), who were part of a larger cross-sectional survey of a workforce (n = 5677) aged 40-64 years. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels were significantly lower in Pacific Islanders (mean (SE) = 56 (3) nmol/L; p = 0.0001) and Maoris (68 (3) nmol/L; p = 0.036) compared with Europeans (75 (2) nmol/L) after adjusting for age, sex and time of year. Also adjusting for ethnic group, 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 was higher in people doing vigorous (aerobic) leisure physical activities (71 (2) nmol/L; p = 0.0066) and moderate (non-aerobic) activities (68 (3) nmol/L; p = 0.12) compared with those who were inactive (63 (2) nmol/L). However, 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 was unrelated to body mass index, serum lipids, blood pressure or cigarette smoking. People with increased skin pigmentation, such as Polynesians, and people who are inactive, have decreased body levels of vitamin D; this might partly explain their increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Implications of dividend imputation for equity pricing in New Zealand

Dividend imputation was introduced in New Zealand as from 1 April 1988. In this paper we analyse the implications of the tax regime for equity pricing and the allocation of investment funds. The analysis indicates that the expected effects of imputation are potentially significant. We demonstrate that understanding the nature and magnitude of the effects requires knowing the identity of the marginal investors for equities (and other investments) in New Zealand. The magnitude of the effects is most striking if marginal investors are international investors. Where the marginal investors are New Zealand residents, the most significant is the rise (fall) in New Zealand equity prices (before‐tax expected returns).

Effects of supplementation with high-selenium wheat bread on selenium, glutathione peroxidase and related enzymes in blood components of New Zealand residents

The effects of supplementation with high-Se wheat bread on selenium (Se) concentrations, glutathione peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.9, GSHPx) activities and related enzymes in the prevention of lipid peroxidation were studied. Four New Zealand women were supplemented with 200 micrograms Se daily for 8-13 weeks followed by a post-dosing period of 9-12 weeks. GSHPx activities increased in whole blood, erythrocytes, plasma and platelets of all subjects but increases were considerably less than those of Se concentrations in whole blood, plasma and erythrocytes. During the post-dosing period Se concentrations and GSHPx activities fell to levels which were in most cases somewhat higher than baseline values. Glutathione-S-transferase activities in erythrocytes, plasma and platelets did not change during the study, nor did superoxide dismutase in erythrocytes and platelets, erythrocyte catalase or plasma alpha-tocopherol. Thus Se supplementation of healthy New Zealand subjects increased GSHPx activities but did not produce any adaptive changes in other components of the lipid peroxidation defense mechanisms.

Urinary excretion of selenium by New Zealand and North American human subjects on differing intakes

Lower renal plasma clearances of selenium (CSe 0.1-0.2 ml min-1), indicating excretion of a smaller proportion of Se presented to the kidneys, were found in New Zealand (NZ) residents with low plasma Se ((Se)p 50-70 ng ml-1) on customary intakes below 30 micrograms d-1 Se. North American subjects consuming 80 micrograms d-1 with (Se)p 120-140 ng ml-1 had CSe between 0.2 and 0.3 ml min-1. Several weeks' supplementation with high-Se bread increased NZ subjects' (Se)p to 120-175 ng ml-1 and CSe to 0.4-0.7 ml min-1. (Se)p remained elevated when supplementation ceased, but CSe returned to the basal range within a few days. Americans' clearances showed no such abrupt decrease when their dietary intake was similarly reduced. The NZ residents thus appeared to excrete selenium more sparingly than others. Rapid alterations in clearance after supplements and single doses were probably due to changes in the proportions of different forms of selenium in the plasma.