FAME Yield Research Articles

Solvent Assisted Biodiesel Production by Co-processing Beef Tallow and Soybean Oil Over Calcium Catalysts

Due to sustainability issues, biodiesel must be produced from low-grade fats and the conventional homogeneously-catalyzed processes must be replaced by more efficient and more profitable production processes such as heterogeneous ones. Biodiesel (fatty acids methyl esters, FAME) was produced from a mixture (50 wt%) of soybean oil and non-edible beef tallow over heterogeneous calcium-based catalysts obtained by calcination of scallop shells. In order to improve the catalytic performances, solvent assisted methanolysis was conducted using alcohols (ethanol, 1-propanol, isopropanol and isobutanol), acetone, methylcyclohexane, and tetrahydrofuran (THF) with Vmethanol/Vsolvent = 2.8. Catalytic data revealed that alcohol solvents adsorb competitively with methanol on the catalyst active sites reducing the FAME yield due to their slower alcoholysis rates. Hexane and methylcyclohexane are inadequate for methanolysis reactions since they are immiscible with methanol. THF and acetone are immiscible with the co-produced glycerin, which favors methyl esters formation by displacing the chemical equilibrium towards reaction products. Acetone performs better than THF (FAME yield gain of 14% against 3%) because of its higher miscibility with methanol. THF was the most effective solvent to avoid fat adsorption on the catalyst surface, a key factor for catalyst stability, and to improve the glycerin purity.

Core-shell ZnO-TiO2 hollow spheres synthesized by in-situ hydrothermal method for ester production application

In the current research, a carbohydrate-derived mesoporous ZnO-TiO2 hollow spheres was synthesized in presence of incomplete carbonized glucose (ICG) as a template using autoclave-assisted reactor. The synthesized mesoporous ZnO-TiO2-ICG composites were further functionalized via thermal treatment with chlorosulfonic acid in chloroform in order to attach -SO3H functional groups on the mesopore walls. The textural, structural, morphological and thermal properties of the sulfonated mesoporous ZnO-TiO2-ICG catalyst were further evaluated. The catalytic performance of the sulfonated ZnO-TiO2-ICG catalyst was investigated through transesterification of waste cooking palm oil (WCPO). A series of transesterification reactions was done to evaluate the influence of operational conditions including; catalyst amount (0.25–1.50 wt%), methanol:WCPO molar ratio (3:1–15:1), operating temperature (60–140 °C), and stirring power (200–800 rpm). Gas chromatography (GC) was also employed to determine WCPO methyl ester content. From the catalyst testing on transesterification of WCPO under optimized conditions (mesoporous ZnO-TiO2-ICG catalyst amount of 1 wt%, methanol:WCPO molar ratio of 6:1, operating temperature of 100 °C, and mixing intensity of 400 rpm), the sulfonated mesoporous ZnO-TiO2-ICG catalyst revealed promising ester yield of 96.1% at 75 min by using autoclave reactor. Reusability experiments indicated that the spent sulfonated mesoporous ZnO-TiO2-ICG catalyst was highly potential to stay active for ten repeated cycles while the FAME yield dropped insignificantly. The high activity and stability were associated to the exceptional textural and structural characteristic of the sulfonated ZnO-TiO2-ICG catalyst along with extremely well-attached of SO3H functional-groups to the majority of active spots. The fuel properties of the prepared WCPO methyl ester was tested by measuring its density, viscosity, pour point, cloud point, flash point, and water and sulfur contents. The results were highly in accordance with particular EN (14214) and ASTM (D6751) standards.

In situ Transesterification of Microalgae Parachlorella kessleri Biomass Using Sulfonated Rice Husk Solid Catalyst at Room Temperature

Microalgae are a sustainable raw material for biodiesel production that earned a lot of consideration. Biodiesel from the conventional transesterification (liquid acid based) process of microalgae oil needs pre-treatment before its use as fuel. Moreover, the oil extraction process is energy extensive. In this study, room temperature assisted in situ transesterification method is reported using a solid acid catalyst obtained from sulfonated rice husk (RHS). The RHS catalyst was synthesized by microwave acid treatment of rice husk. The surface characterization of RHS by XRD, FT-IR, Raman, and XPS confirms the presence of −SO3H, while the pore anatomy and pore structure analysis by FE-SEM and BET substantiate the presence of porous structure and high surface area. Furthermore, the RHS catalyst was successfully employed for the in situ transesterification of the microalgae (Parachlorella kessleri) biomass. Various experimental conditions influencing the in situ transesterification were evaluated. The optimization of catalyst dose revealed that 30 mg RHS produce highest FAME yield after 30-min reaction time at room temperature (25 °C). Performance of the catalyst was compared with rice husk-derived fluorocarbon (RHFC) and conventional acid catalyst (H2SO4). Moreover, in the proposed approach, there is no need for oil extraction step and pre-treatment of biodiesel after the reaction. RHS is very effective at room temperature compared with conventional transesterification.

Ultrasonic assisted oil extraction and biodiesel synthesis of Spent Coffee Ground

Spent Coffee Ground (SCG) was studied as a potential source of oil feedstock for biodiesel production as an alternative waste utilisation instead of being disposed as municipal waste. This study evaluated the ultrasonic assisted oil extraction from SCG, which was followed by biodiesel conversion via transesterification. Hexane was found to be the most effective extractant for SCG oil. Soxhlet extraction could obtain maximum SCG oil yield of 12.5% within 3 h whereas the highest SCG oil yield (14.52%) using ultrasonic extraction was obtained at hexane to SCG ratio of 4 mL g−1 and at 30% ultrasonic amplitude for 30 min. The improved oil yield with shorter extraction time was due to the ultrasonic fragmentation on SCG cells, which enhanced the interactions between oil and solvents. Fourier transform infrared analysis showed that the SCG oil possessed suitable functional groups for biodiesel conversion. Then, the SCG oil was successfully converted to biodiesel via ultrasonic assisted transesterification. The optimal FAME yield (97.11%) was achieved with molar ratio of methanol to SCG oil of 30:1, 4 wt% of catalyst concentration, at 30% ultrasonic amplitude and for 3 h. The produced SCG biodiesel has promising properties which adhere to the biodiesel standards but acid value was beyond the permissible limit which could be overcome by utilising as blend feedstock with other commercially available biodiesel. The high calorific value along with low viscosity, density and corrosion properties suggested SCG biodiesel as an interesting and viable option for biodiesel blending.

Study of fame production from waste cooking oil: Operation in batch and continuous regime with regeneration of enzyme catalyst

This work aimed to: (i) assess the performance of Novozyme® 435 for FAME production from waste cooking oil (WCO) under different oil acid values and enzyme-to-oil ratios; (ii) test different regeneration methods and assess the regenerated enzyme’s performance; and (iii) determine FAME yield in continuous operation regime. Oil acid values up to 104 mg KOH.g−1 and enzyme-to-WCO ratios of up to 20:80 (% wt.) were studied, with maximum yield recorded for increasing acid values and enzyme-to-WCO ratio. FAME production from WCO yield ranging 50%–80% was recorded for 5 consecutive production cycles (8h each, in batch regime) with no regeneration of the enzyme. Among the enzyme regeneration methods tested, the highest FAME yield was recorded using t-butanol washing followed by enzyme incubation in the WCO before reusing it. Operation in continuous regime, including enzyme regeneration, produced the highest FAME yield (maximum of 86 %). Thus, effectiveness of the regenerating process and efficiency of continuous production of FAME from WCO (up to 576h) were observed.

Highly efficient production of FAMEs and β-farnesene from a two-stage biotransformation of waste cooking oils

This is the first report on an ecofriendly process for producing FAMEs and β-farnesene via a two-stage biotransformation of waste cooking oils (WCOs), in which the FAMEs are referred to as biodiesel products and β-farnesene is used as a jet biofuel. First, the yield of FAMEs from untreated WCOs by Novozym 435 was 33% under the initial transesterification conditions with crude glycerol containing 46% (w/w) methanol. However, crude glycerol with highly concentrated methanol seriously inhibited fermentation for the production of β-farnesene by an engineered E. coli strain with a relatively balanced mevalonate (MVA) pathway that was constructed with the recombinant plasmids pMevT, pMBIS and pFiI. The pretreatment of WCOs and optimization of the transesterification process were successfully performed to completely eliminate fermentation repression, and the methanol content in the crude glycerol was reduced to zero. The production of β-farnesene (5.29 g/L) using this crude glycerol as a substrate was approximately 50% higher than that (3.56 g/L) produced under the initial conditions, which was more than 100% higher than that (2.62 g/L) produced using crude glycerol via chemical transesterification methods. Furthermore, the optimal transesterification process resulted in a sharply increased yield of FAMEs (96%) compared that (33%) obtained under the initial conditions. Therefore, this biotechnology achieved a high FAMEs yield and β-farnesene production and might be suitable for industrial-scale implementation.

A core-shell SO4/Mg-Al-Fe3O4 catalyst for biodiesel production

Catalytic transesterification of triglycerides and esterification of free fatty acids underpins sustainable biodiesel production, wherein efficient heterogeneous catalysts are sought to replace mineral acids. A robust, magnetic core-shell SO4/Mg-Al-Fe3O4 catalyst was synthesised by stepwise co-precipitation, encapsulation, and surface functionalisation. The resulting magnetically-separable catalyst has a surface area of 123 m2 g−1, uniform 6.5 nm mesopores, and a high total acid site loading of 2.35 mmol g-1. Optimum conditions for the (trans)esterification of waste cooking oil (WCO) over the sulfated solid acid catalyst were 95 °C, a methanol:WCO molar ratio of 9:1, and 300 min reaction to achieve 98.5% FAME yield. Esterification of oleic acid to methyl oleate resulted in an 88% yield after 150 min under the same reaction conditions. The magnetic solid acid catalyst exhibited good thermal and chemical stability and enabled facile catalyst separation post-reaction and the production of high quality biodiesel.

Effect of acid-catalysed in one step production of biodiesel on total sugars of defatted rice bran

Defatted rice bran is a major byproduct of rice bran-based biodiesel and rich in carbohydrate. The high amount of carbohydrate (starch) from its process can be utilized as energy fuel feedstock. In this work, the effect of acid catalyst amount and reaction time on the yield of oil and carbohydrate products in in-situ transesterification from rice bran was investigated. The longer reaction time was used; oil products (FAMEs yield and its content) and carbohydrate product (total sugars content and recovery) showed the opposite trendline. The longer reaction times was achieved, the more yield of FAMEs was obtained but the lower total sugars content on defatted rice bran. While, the less amount catalyst was enough to faster reaction and produce high total sugars content.

Simple and effective technology for sustainable biodiesel production using high-power household fruit blender

Abstract A commercial household fruit blender is proposed as a simple, less time-consuming, and effective biodiesel production technique in this research work. Biodiesel was successfully produced in a 1200 W commercial household fruit blender. Due to the synergistic effect derived from the very high rotational speed of the blender blades integrated with micro-mixing level from cavitation phenomena, heat and mass transfer became greatly enhanced. The vigorous stirring inherently increased the temperature of the methanol-oil mixture to greater than 60 °C in less than 3 min, thus, a provision of external heating was not required. With a methanol to fresh refined palm oil molar ratio of 6:1 and 1 wt% sodium hydroxide catalyst, the FAME yield of 94.5% can be achieved in less than 3 min with the yield efficiency of 33.8 × 10−4 g/J for 500 mL of reaction volume. For 1000 mL of reaction volume at 1 min of reaction time, the FAME yield of 79.9% can be achieved with the yield efficiency of 122.3 × 10−4 g/J. Properties of the produced FAME comply with the EN 14214 and ASTM D 6751 standards. In conclusion, these results indicate that a high-power commercial household fruit blender can be utilized to produce biodiesel economically and effectively.

Enhanced isolation of lipids from microalgal biomass with high water content for biodiesel production

In present study, lipids were extracted from unbroken microalga Chlorella vulgaris with high water content (50% microalgal solution) through three-phase partitioning (TPP). The method was found to extract around 15.9% of total lipid transformable to methyl esters (LTMEs) from unbroken microalgal cells which is two times of Bligh and Dyer method. We investigated the effects of various parameters on TPP performance and were optimised through response surface methodology. The results indicated that incubation duration, temperature and extraction time were positively correlated with LTME extraction efficiency. The optimum temperature was 60 °C, incubation duration was 120 min, extraction time was 60 min, ratio of solvent to DKP was 1:1. The FAME yield was calculated as 12.05% and major fatty acids together accounted for 71.33% which indicated the great potential of the proposed lipid extraction procedure for microalga-based biodiesel production.

The synthesis of biodiesel using copper based metal-organic framework as a catalyst

The metal-organic framework (MOF) used as a heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production has been produced from the coordination of benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylic acid (BTc) and divalent copper (Cu). A straightforward solvothermal method with ethanol-water solvent was employed for the production of MOF, and rod-like CuBTc-MOF particles with a unit cell length of 37.12 nm were obtained. Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) sorption-isotherm characterization revealed that CuBTc holds a surface area of 1085.72 m2/g and a total pore volume of 1.68 cm3/g. The high thermal stability of CuBTc, with a degradation temperature of 303 °C, was confirmed through thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Other characterizations were also carried out to characterize the CuBTc. Specifically, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The produced CuBTc-MOF is applied to produce biodiesel from palm oil. The composition in biodiesel was quantified using gas chromatography (GC) analysis. The optimal FAME yield in biodiesel of 91% was obtained from transesterification using 0.04 g CuBTc and methanol to oil volume ratio of 5:1. Recycled CuBTc- MOF was also capable of producing biodiesel with high FAME yield, which is 86%. The obtained result signifies the potential catalytic activity of CuBTc-MOF in the production of biodiesel.

Biodiesel production from refined sunflower oil over Ca–Mg–Al catalysts: Effect of the composition and the thermal treatment

Different Ca–Mg–Al catalysts were prepared by the hydrotalcite route using co-precipitation and impregnation techniques. The effect of thermal treatment was studied and the obtained mixed oxides were characterized by X-ray diffraction, N2 adsorption-desorption and CO2-temperature programmed desorption. Catalysts were then tested in the transesterification of sunflower oil. The catalyst that showed the best catalytic performance was an uncalcined Mg4Al2 support impregnated with 40 wt% of calcium followed by a calcination at 600 °C (Ca600/Mg4Al2HT). Optimum conditions for biodiesel production over this catalyst were a reaction time of 6 h, a catalyst to oil ratio of 2.5 wt%, a 15:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, a stirring rate of 400 rpm and a temperature of 60 °C giving a final FAME yield of 95%.

C. Biodiesel Dari Minyak Biji Nyamplung Melalui Proses Transesterifikasi Dengan Reaktor Sistem Aliran Berkelanjutan

This study aims to study the effect of temperature, flow velocity in the reactor and product flow velocity on FAME yield in the transesterification process of nyamplung seed oil into biodiesel in packed bed columns. As a whole the process involved includes degumming, acid catalyzed esterification and alkaline catalyzed transesterification. The transesterification process is carried out in a packed bed column. In the transesterification process, the fixed variable is the molar ratio of methanol to oil and the amount of NaOH catalyst to oil. While the independent variables are temperature, flow velocity in the reactor and the transesterification product flow rate and the response variable is (percentage)% FAME in the product. To obtain% FAME, product samples were analyzed using GC with internal standard methods.

BIOFUEL VIA INTERESTERIFICATION OF RAPESEED OIL WITH METHYL ACETATE IN PRESENCE OF POTASSIUM t-BUTOXIDE/THF

Transesterification does not allow to make full conversion of oil to biodiesel because the by-product glycerol cannot be included in the composition of biofuel. Interesterification constitutes a full conversion process with production of triacetin (TA) instead of glycerol, which can be included in the composition of biofuel and allows to increase its yield. Both interesterification and transesterification effectively occur only in presence of catalysts. Results of the investigation of heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts indicate the superior importance of catalyst solubility in starting reaction mixture. Partial solubility can remarkably lower the activity of homogeneous catalyst and extremely increase that of formally heterogeneous one. The reaction mixture of interesterification reaction is less polar than that of transesterification, and potassium tert-butoxide (t-BuOK) should be more appropriate catalyst for interesterification than sodium methoxide which is used in most cases. The catalytic system t-BuOK/t-BuOH substantially increases the yield of TA and changes the properties of obtained biofuel. Whereas the content of the TA in the interesterification reaction mixture does not achieve the same level from the theoretically predicted as the FAME, the occurrence of side reaction between t-BuOH and TA cannot be excluded. This paper presents a study of the interesterification of rapeseed oil in presence of catalytic system t-BuOK/THF (catalytic system without alcohols) with the aim of establishing the influence of aprotic tetrahydrofuran to the proceeding the reaction, composition of reaction mixtures and their fuel properties. Obtained results show that the absence of alcoholic hydroxyl groups in the catalytic system insufficiently increases the activity of catalytic system but fails to increase the yield of FAME.

Calcium diglyceroxide as a catalyst for biodiesel production

Calcium diglyceroxide (CaD) was used as the catalyst for biodiesel production through oil methanolysis. It was evaluated its catalytic behavior, its air expo- sure tolerance, and the Ca leaching. CaD catalyst was synthesized from food waste scallop shell derived CaO (obtained by calcination at 900 °C) by contacting with a mixture of equal volumes of glycerin and methanol at 65 °C for 2 h. The CaO obtained by calcination of scallop shell was used as reference catalyst. In standard reaction conditions (2.5 h, methanol reflux temperature, 5 wt% (oil basis) catalyst loading, and methanol:oil = 12:1 moral ratio), CaD presented lower catalytic activity than CaO (FAME yield of 92% against 99%, respectively). 24 h repined CaD presented improved catalytic behavior probably due to the formation of surface Ca −OH groups, achieving 96% of FAME yield. Thermogravimetry (TG) data showed that inorganic residue was larger for biodiesel than for glycerin, being CaD catalyst more soluble than CaO. Data showed that CaD is unstable under reaction conditions, suffering leaching, but the absence of Matter Organic Non-Glycerol (MONG) in the glycerin phase allows to neglect the homogeneous contribution of the leached catalyst. CaD formation during reaction contributes to FAME contamination with Ca and promotes catalyst deactivation thus being an undesired occurrence.

Enhanced biodiesel synthesis from palm fatty acid distillate and modified sulfonated glucose catalyst via an oscillation flow reactor system

Due to potential depletion and environmental issues caused by fossil fuel usage, the search for alternative source became necessary. Biodiesel synthesis in recent times has received research attention as an energy source that is renewable and sustainable. In this study, glucose acid catalyst was synthesized via modified sulfonation approach and was successfully utilized in a continuous oscillatory flow reactor to produce an environmentally friendly biodiesel under atmospheric conditions. Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) feedstock consisting of >90% free fatty acid was employed in a single step esterification reaction. The prepared modified sulfonated glucose catalyst was characterized utilizing FTIR, XRD, TPD-NH3, FESEM, EDX and BET. The optimization of the process parameters conducted in the oscillation flow reactor (OFR) achieved >97% conversion of the PFAD to biodiesel with 94.21% FAME yield. The optimum process parameters for optimum conversion by the synthesized catalyst were 2.5 wt.% catalyst loading, 6 Hz oscillation frequency, 9:1 molar ratio, 60 °C temperature of reaction and 50 min residence time. The OFR consisting of tubes with orifice plate baffles spaced equally has indicated to be an efficient technology for biodiesel synthesis utilizing the heterogeneous acid catalyst. The efficient catalyst was reusable for up to four cycles with minimal loss in activity achieving about 80% conversion at the fourth cycle.

Biodiesel Production from N. oculata Microalgae Lipid in the Presence of Bi2O3/ZrO2 Catalysts

Mixed oxides catalyst has become a recent focus for production of biodiesel from the third-generation biomass. In this study, ZrO2 was synthesized by using sol–gel method with hydrothermal assisted. Mixed oxides catalysts were then prepared via incipient wetness impregnation of Bi2O3 (5, 15 and 30 wt%) on the synthesized ZrO2. Physicochemical properties of the catalysts were evaluated using different characterization techniques and their performances were investigated in the transesterification of marine microalgae of Nannochloropsis oculata to biodiesel. XRD diffractograms showed the presence of monoclinic (m) and tetragonal (t) phases of ZrO2 in all synthesized catalysts. It was found that the composition of the ZrO2 phases depend strongly on the Bi2O3 content. BET analyses showed that the total surface area of ZrO2 decreased with increased Bi2O3 content due to the pore filling effect. CO2-TPD and NH3-TPD analyses indicated that all the catalysts possessed both acidic and basic properties with different intensities. The highest FAME yield was obtained using 5Bi2O3/ZrO2 when the test was conducted at optimum reaction conditions of 20 wt% of catalyst loading and methanol to biomass ratio of 90:1 (mL/g) at 80 °C for 6 h. The synthesized biodiesel met the specifications of biodiesel standard for cetane number and iodine value except for the oxidative stability.

A single-phase transesterification of linseed oil using different co-solvents and hydrogel in the presence of calcium oxide: An optimization study

A single-phase transesterification of linseed oil has been investigated in the presence of heterogeneous base catalyst (CaO) with different co-solvents and hydrogel as a water absorber. Di-ethyl ether, tetrahydrofuran, biodiesel, n-hexane were depleted as co-solvents to improve the mutual solubility of the oil and methanol. The molar ratio of methanol to oil, the molar ratio of co-solvent to methanol, and catalyst concentration are among the integral parameters that influence the FAME yield. The results of transesterification processes with co-solvent and without co-solvent were compared with each other, thus, T-test and F-test depicted striking level of modification. Response surface methodology was carried out to optimize the main process parameters. The maximum FAME yield of 98.77% was reached under the following optimum conditions: molar ratio of methanol to oil 9.41:1, molar ratio of DEE to methanol of 1.11:1, catalyst concentration of 0.98 wt%, temperature of 30 °C, agitation rate of 650 rpm, and reaction time of 60 min.

Enzyme-Catalyzed Production of FAME by Hydroesterification of Soybean Oil Using the Novel Soluble Lipase NS 40116.

The performance of lipase NS 40116, a novel and promising soluble enzyme obtained from modified Thermomyces lanuginosus microorganism, was investigated in the production of biodiesel (fatty acid methyl esters-FAME) by hydroesterification. In order to investigate the potential of the biocatalyst in its soluble form, this work reports the effect of water content and enzyme load, as well as the recovery and reuse of the biocatalyst. A FAME yield of 94.30% after 12h was achieved at 35°C by combining 0.50wt% of lipase, 15wt% of water, and a methanol:oil molar ratio of 4.5:1. The analysis of the time course reaction suggests that the triacylglycerides (TAGs) are hydrolyzed by the enzyme in a first step, generating free fatty acids (FFAs), followed by the esterification of these FFAs into FAME. In relation to the reusability assays, the lipase kept approximately 90% of its catalytic activity after five cycles of reuse. In this context, the findings of this study demonstrate that lipase NS 40116 can efficiently catalyze hydroesterification reactions under mild conditions, arising as a competitive alternative for biodiesel synthesis.

Optimization of microwave-assisted biodiesel production from Papaya oil using response surface methodology

In these studies, the microwave-assisted transesterification of non-edible Papaya oil was investigated under the fixed microwave power of 700 W and constant magnetic stirring. Optimization of the yield of Papaya oil methyl ester was investigated using response surface methodology. Within the range of the selected operating conditions, the optimized values of temperature, catalyst amount, time, and methanol to oil molar ratio were found to be 62.33 °C, 0.95 wt %, 3.30 min, and 9.50:1 respectively. Current studies revealed that the methanol to oil molar ratio and temperature have significant effects on microwave-assisted transesterification of Papaya oil. The high values of R2 97.72 and R2adj 95.60 indicate that the fitted model shows a good agreement with the predicted and actual FAME yield. Based on the optimum condition, the predicted biodiesel yield was 99.9% and the actual experimental value was 99.3%. Papaya oil methyl ester (POME) exhibits property close to ASTM standards. In conclusion, these studies revealed that biodiesel obtained from Papaya seed oil feedstock has a potential to use as an alternative of diesel.