Years Of Hostility Research Articles

MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF WAQF IN AFGHANISTAN

This research delves into the importance and pertinence of Waqf in Afghanistan, charting its historical administration across time and emphasizing its customary utilization only for mosques and religious instruction across the country. It examines a number of aspects of Waqf in Afghanistan, such as its historical development of Waqf, the existence of Waqf laws in the country, its evolution throughout time, common difficulties of Waqf, a lack of awareness among the general public even on institutional level, and the required and necessity of updating Waqf customs in the nation. Amidst Afghanistan's ongoing problems with extreme poverty and high jobless rates brought on by years of hostilities and civil war. We believe that there is a chance to revive the Waqf tradition and modify it for use in modern settings. Afghanistan might learn from other prosperous Muslim countries by using Waqf as a tool for economic growth and creating a structure and plan that support charitable endeavors and self-sufficient Waqf-based institutions in the nation. Waqf is well-positioned to assist governmental initiatives in meeting community needs and achieving development goals within Waqf institutions in Afghanistan by fostering social welfare and promotes growth and development of the economy. Afghanistan's Waqf institution is excellent; it can help the government with a wide range of official duties.

Enemies by kinship: securitizing language and the Russian diaspora in escalated gray zone conflict

ABSTRACT Russia’s February 2022 intervention in Ukraine transformed the socioeconomic landscape for the Russian diaspora most profoundly since the Soviet Union’s collapse. Diaspora members have been labeled as a security risk and acting as Moscow’s “agents.” Since Russia’s militarized intervention in Ukraine, Kyiv and the European Union closed their borders with Russia, limiting the movement of people. In turn, this has severed families and longstanding sociocultural and economic ties with the homeland. However, Russia’s militarized intervention should not be treated in isolation from the preceding eight years of hostility with Kyiv and NATO which occurred predominantly in the “gray zone.” This paper explores language policy conditions in Ukraine, Latvia, and Estonia that enabled Russia’s unconventional and militarized interventions. The paper argues that by rejecting ownership of the Russian language and assigning it to Moscow, Kyiv, Riga, and Tallinn weaponized language and empowered Russia’s “compatriots protection” policy. In other words, militarized deterrence against Russia has achieved limited success while the underlying factors enabling Moscow’s interventions remained outside the deterrence discussion. Thus in an era of gray zone conflict, deterrence must incorporate civilianized institution-building mechanisms. To prove this, the paper compares minority language policies and their connection to the intensity of Russia’s intervention.

The Impact of Russian Aggression Against Ukraine on Estonian Security

Historically, Estonia has suffered many years of hostilities inflicted by Russia, with Russia being a constant threat towards the nation’s identity and sovereignty, including the loss of its independence and coming under and enduring belligerent Russian occupation. Recently, Moscow’s policy escalated by their unilaterally using military power against Ukraine in an attempt to subordinate the nation while harbouring desires to restore their sphere of influence. 2022’s aggression came as no surprise to Tallinn, as the nation’s leadership had issued warnings about Russia’s intentions, based on understanding its nature and being aware of what a so-called “Russian world” means. This article aims to focus on presenting the impact of Russian aggression against Ukraine on Estonia within three domains of understanding; those of the political, public, and military, and the author will use scientific methods including the collection of original data and a systematic review of existing literature and studies, along with analyses, syntheses, and elements of comparative analysis. The case study, of course, concerns Estonia. The research contends that the Russian Federation is and will continue to be considered an existential threat, one which carries out both continuous and decisive non-military and military activities against its neighbours. These activities require Estonia to improve internal security with the need of regional and international support.

Фактори ризику непсихотичних психічних та поведінкових розладів в умовах соціального стресу

Актуальність. Соціальна криза,триваючі, протягом майже 4-х років військові дії на Сході України, вимушена трудова міграція населення в пошуках матеріального забезпечення родини, а інколи – єдина можливість вижити в умовах соціально-економічної кризи, призвели до дезадаптації значної частини суспільства.
 Мета. Дослідити фактори ризику непсихотичних психічних та поведінкових розладів серед трудових мігрантів і учасників бойових дій з метою попередження психічних захворювань.
 Результати дослідження. За допомогою скринінг-тесту обстежено 150 осіб – 80 учасників бойових дій і 70 трудових мігрантів. Стресовразливими виявились: 30 учасників бойових дій і 40 трудових мігрантів. Такі фактори ризику, як низький соціально-економічний статус, відсутність у значної частини трудових мігрантів і демобілізованих учасників бойових дій матеріального- роботи на час обстеження, відсутність «повного» порозуміння в родині та підтримки з їх боку призвели до емоційних переживань. «Несправедливість» та «часті» приниження за меншовартісттю у трудових мігрантів провокували появу тривоги та потягу до вживання спитрних напоїв. У демобілізованих учасників бойових дій «байдуже» ставлення до їхніх проблем з боку суспільства викликали дратівливість, агресію, які підсилювалися вживанням психоактивних речовин.
 Висновки. Трудова міграція і участь в бойових діях є надзвичайно сильними стрес-факторами, які виснажують людину і фізично, і психічно та потребують дієвої державної і медичної допомоги.

Macedonia name change paves way for science cooperation with Greece

Science features in a deal that ends almost 30 years of hostilities over a shared name. Science features in a deal that ends almost 30 years of hostilities over a shared name.

The role of Christianity in mending societal fragility and quelling violence in Liberia

This article has benefited from the research entitled �The role of Christianity in post-war Liberia�. It is a study that attempts to examine and investigate how Christian faith and spirituality can play a role in a campaign for social peace, justice, development and unity. This article describes and evaluates a cross section of strategies and policies which theologians can employ to develop and sustain peace and foster reconstruction plans among perpetrators and victims of a brutal civil war. It attempts to answer the following question: what role can Christianity play to effectively lessen the animosity that engendered the years of hostilities in Liberia and facilitate the healing of wounds?Intradisciplinary and/or interdisciplinary implications: This article sets forth a debate about the role Christianity ought to play in societal conflict. Christian religion is a prophetic religion by nature and it should serve as a source of peace, reconciliation and healing for human relationships. Examples of what the role of authentic church could be are cited from a Liberian context. It is further argued that all sectors of society, women, men and children may be agents of peace and unity. The article concludes by setting parameters for sustainable peace in Liberia.

Correcting the Eyesight: Cosmopolitanism in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart

Correcting the Eyesight: Cosmopolitanism in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart Abstract The evolutionary process of separatist efforts such as colonialism, imperialism, globalization, neo-colonialism or any nationalism are outdated because global resources are becoming scarce every day, so such terms as human solidarity, Cosmopolitanism, and co-existence will have to endure in order to make use of the resources in the most optimum way. Mankind will have to understand that global sameness has to prevail despite long years of hostility, violence and bloodshed. In line with such an understanding, cosmopolitanism, as a term refers to world citizenship and 'a tolerance for things and people who are different’ and 'morality which is not rooted locally, but globally.’ Chinua Achebe tries to change the African images created by the writers depending on Eurocentric and Afrocentric perspectives. He handles the same periphery from an unusual viewpoint that is because he utilizes a different approach in representing Africa and composes counter discourses in response to colonial, imperial and racial discourses presented in colonial contexts.

‘The colour of the country’: English travellers in Spain, 1604–1625

The travel writings produced by English travellers to early modern Spain reveal complex and contradictory attitudes to a country that was at once exotic and little known, subject of considerable cultural interest and translation activity, a former ally and yet before the Treaty of London in 1604 the subject of 20 years of hostilities. Travellers’ accounts reflect the cultural baggage they took with them, made up of both anti-Spanish propaganda and literary images. The desire to challenge Spanish imperial might and political authority was often expressed through invoking religious difference and by associating Spain with the Ottoman Turks and racial miscegenation. While English travellers represented the common people as deluded by Jesuits and attacked Catholic superstition and veniality, they also lavished praise on cultural achievements like the Escorial. These ambivalences and contradictions underline the extent to which in the early seventeenth century Spain played an integral part in how the English defined themselves and constructed their own identity.

AN IMPROVED NEW MODEL FOR TOURIST FLOW BETWEEN THE DIVIDED TWO KOREAS

On April 13-15, 2000 South and North Korean leaders gathered in Pyongyang for a meeting of peace ending over fifty years of hostilities. According to this meeting, South and North Korea were believed to be among the economies most directly affected by the world peace process. This had a large effect on both countries in many aspects, socially, politically and economically. One of the sectors, which may gain immediate benefits, is tourism even though the study of the relationship between tourism and peace is relatively new. This study investigates of peace tourism trends between politically divided South and North Korea. It examines tourism as past, present and future activities in influencing reconciliation between the two purpils and governments and discusses the current state of affairs of this two countries and tourism between South and North Korea.

Death in the Countryside

FIFTEEN YEARS OF HOSTILITY AND NEGLECT HAVE DEVASTATED THE WORLD OF THE INDIAN PEASANT. FARMERS’ SUICIDES STALK THE LAND

Taiwan's future lies in reunification with the motherland

The status of Taiwan vis‐à‐vis China is one that has vexed the two communities for many years. While Taiwan insists on its own autonomous identity, the international community generally recognises the Government in Beijing as that of the whole of China. But in recent years, it appears to the Government of the People's Republic of China that this consensus has been mud‐died. Here Gong Jianzhong sets out the Chinese perspective that Taiwan is an irrevocable part of China, historically and in the eyes of the world. While Taiwan has had strong economic development, it has also been able to take advantage of the growth of the mainland economy, without which it would not be in so strong a position. The Government in Beijing desires that Taiwan should come to the negotiating table, accepting the principle of ‘one China’ and negotiate on an equal basis to end the years of hostility which divides the people of the mainland and Taiwan.

GRIT, Gorbachev and the end of the Cold War

The end of the Cold War is a story that will no doubt be written and rewritten as historians discover evidence that casts light on presently unknown facts, and provide new ‘spins’ on those already known. Indeed, it is quite likely that, like its origins, the end of the Cold War will have its equivalents of orthodoxy and revisionism. Of all the players in this story it is Mikhail Gorbachev who will take the leading role; for some the hero and for others the villain. The story of the Gorbachev era is a controversial one, with the answers to many questions in dispute. Did the West win due to ‘peace through strength’? Was new thinking primarily driven by the need for economic recovery? Was the West too hesitant in its response to Soviet initiatives? For some, the end of the Cold War brought to a conclusion a tragedy in which the two superpowers had embarked upon defensive measures which had led each to believe that the other harboured malign intent; hence Robert Jervis’s assertion that the ‘Cold War may . . . have been an unavoidable tragedy rather than the result of an evil Soviet Union, as the orthodox school has it, or an evil United States, as most revisionists argue’.Robert Jervis, 'The End of the Cold War?', Diplomatic History, 17 (Fall 1993), p. 659. On this interpretation the Cold War was a security dilemma in which ‘each side, in pursuing its own clearly indicated and deeply cherished principles, was only confirming the fear of the other that it was bent on aggression’.Arthur Schlesinger, Jr, 'Origins of the Cold War', Foreign Affairs, 46 (Oct. 1967), p. 45. In this article the story of how this tragedy was ended will be told from the perspective of graduated reciprocation in tension reduction (GRIT). It will focus on whether Gorbachev employed such a strategy and whether it had a role in ending over forty years of hostility.

The Re-emergence of China Studies in Vietnam

After war, years of hostility and a long period of gradually improving Party and state relations, the study of China has begun to re-emerge in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Vietnam has had a sinological tradition for hundreds of years, linked to China by history, language, trade, a common border and in a myriad of other ways. From the mid-1950s until the early 1970s, thousands of Vietnamese students and officials studied in the People's Republic of China. Today the People's Republic remains Vietnam's key strategic threat. But the PRC, Taiwan, Hong Kong and overseas Chinese communities are also among Vietnam's key trade partners and a growing source of investment for its economic reforms.Given this close relationship – including the direct hostility in the late 1970s and early to mid–1980s, one of a series of conflicts going back hundreds of years – it is perhaps paradoxical that the study of China in Vietnam has remained relatively weak. During the war against the French which led to the founding of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945 and the victory at Dien Bien Phu, Vietnamese sinology was a field largely limited to one or two universities and institutes in Hanoi and some additional capacity in Hue and Saigon, with scholars trained in either the older Vietnamese or French tradition. The thousands of Vietnamese who studied in China in the 1950s and 1960s were trained largely for other fields, although Chinese studies did see some development during the 1949 to 1966 period.

Cuba now

[First paragraph]The Cuba reader: the making of a revolutionary society. PHILIP BRENNER, WILLIAM M. LEOGRANDE, DONNA RICH, and DANIEL SIEGEL (eds.). New York: Grove Press, 1989. xxxv + 564 pp. (Paper US $14.95). Cuba: the test of time. JEAN STUBBS. London: Latin America Bureau, 1989. xvii + 142 pp. (Paper UK £3.95). Cuba: politics, economics and society. MAX AZICRI. London: Pinter Publishers Ltd., 1988. xxiii + 276 pp. (Cloth US $35.00, Paper US $12.50). Cuba libre: breaking the chains? PETER MARSHALL. Boston: Faber & Faber, 1987. viii + 300 pp. (Cloth US $18.95). The closest of enemies: a personal and diplomatic account of U.S.-Cuban relations since 1957. WAYNE S. SMITH. New York and London: W.W. Norton & Co., 1987. 308 pp. (Paper US $8.95). Imperial state and revolution: the United States and Cuba, 1952-1986. MORRIS H. MORLEY. New Rochelle, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987. ix + 571 pp. (Paper US $16.95, Cloth US $59.50). From confrontation to negotiation: U.S. relations with Cuba. PHILIP BRENNER. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1988. x + 118 pp. (Cloth US $30.00, Paper US $9.95).Nineteen eighty-eight marked the completion of the Cuban revolution's third decade. Several events that year suggested that Cubans might finally look forward to a lessening of the island's international isolation, if not its domestic economic woes. The revolution had survived eight years of hostility from the Reagan administration. Washington's attempts to secure international censure of Cuba on human rights grounds had culminated in the visit of a United Nations delegation, at Havana's invitation and with relatively little damage to Cuba's image. Fidel Castro's visits to Ecuador and Mexico to attend the inaugurations of two Latin American presidents underscored Cuba's reinsertion into the hemispheric community. Finally, Cuban military successes against South African troops in Angola and Cuba's role in the subsequent negotiations over Angola and Namibia were a source of pride.

1950: The Fate of a Grand Design

1950. During that year the leaders of the Harry S. Truman administration made choices which undermined their plans for peace, plunged the nation into war in Korea, and laid the basis for twenty-five years of hostility toward China. Memoirs and secondary accounts have long since sketched the broad outlines of this tragic story. These two volumes, however, enable the historian to see in detail how American statesmen made the decisions which would determine their fate.

Wolfit's Fox: An Interpretation of Volpone

When Sir Donald Wolfit was knighted in 1957 he obtained a coat of arms with the motto Lupus pilium mutat, 'the wolf changes its coat.' Unspoken was perhaps the corollary, 'but still remains himself.' The family name was actually spelled Woolfitt, but after he had simplified it for the stage, Wolfit liked to play on its animal connotations; and this identification of himself with untamed wiliness, with acting as a form of self-enhancement, went much deeper than mere heraldry. Behind the choice of motto lay some irony at official recognition of his unfashionable barnstorming after years of hostility and neglect, but also a humorous insistence on the same traits of character that he had exploited twenty years earlier in interpreting Volpone, the unregenerate fox of 'wooluish nature' (V.ii.115) who revels in impersonation.

The Conduct of Locarno Diplomacy

The conferences, the spectaculars of European diplomacy between the First and Second World Wars, have contributed some interesting myths to the folk history of the twentieth century. The Munich Conference of 1938, for example, has come to represent to some an act of betrayal, surrender and defeat—an effort to have one's own skin by selling out a small country in a vainattempt to satisfy a dictator's unlimited appetite. The Locarno Conference of October, 1925, has been regarded as an event which brought an end to the conflict between Germany and the Western powers during the World War and its aftermath. Supposedly, at Locarno enemies were reconciled after years of hostility, and a new era dawned: the following four years were a period of harmony between Germany and the West, as foreign ministers from each side conducted personal diplomacy in an atmosphere of good will. These assertions about Locarno have received less scholarly attention than the myth of Munich and deserve critical reexamination. As part of that reconsideration, some measurement might be taken of the level of misunderstanding and malevolence and hope — either genuine or illusory.

Too Many Cooks: British Planning Before Saratoga

The climax in the long story of Britain's blunders during the War of Independence is the campaign of 1777, the planning of which, in Whitehall and New York, was the worst that the British perpetrated in the seven years of hostilities. Their strategy in 1781 was even more disastrous in its outcome, but far more defensible in its design; the strategy of 1777 can scarcely be defended at all. It rested upon premises that many observers at the time recognized to be wildly fallacious, and it brought its due reward — the surrender that led directly to French intervention.The campaign had no unifying concept. An army from Canada advanced by way of Lake Champlain and the Hudson toward Albany, where it was supposed to be joined by a small detachment marching down the Mohawk; far to the south a substantial garrison was immobilized on Manhattan, while the main field army attacked Philadelphia by the most roundabout route it could have chosen. The British thus had three armies (ignoring, as they tended to do, their small garrison on Rhode Island), each isolated from the other two; and the Americans were free to concentrate against whichever one they chose. This was dispersion of force carried to the point of absurdity. Why was the absurdity not apparent to the Commander in Chief? to General Burgoyne? to the King's ministers in London? The question has been endlessly debated, and no final answer is possible. But an examination of the men who were principally responsible for the outcome suggests that two major factors were at work.

NEUROSURGERY (AND THE NEUROSURGEON) IN WORLD WAR II

Most physicians who were actively engaged in the medicomilitary activities of World War II are one in their desire to dismiss the whole episode from their minds and fix their attention on new horizons. The physicians who were not active participants in those activities must be weary with hearing about them, for the progress of military medicine has been widely publicized. I therefore approach my subject, neurosurgery (and the neurosurgeon) in World War II, with some degree of trepidation. On the other hand, I think it will be profitable for all neurosurgeons, whether or not they participated actively in the medicomilitary phases of the war, to consider soberly and carefully the progress of this specialty during the four years of hostilities and in the period of so-called peace which came to pass when fighting ceased, as well as to reflect on the role of the civilian neurosurgeon in the Army

THE SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT INDUSTRY

THERE have been many conflicting accounts since the conclusion of the War in regard to the condition of universities, technical institutions and other educational establishments in those European countries which either endured long periods of enemy-occupation or were over-run by the tides of military operations. Nevertheless, little factual information has been available of the extent to which facilities for education in science and technology survived the six years of hostilities. It was to be expected that, in the general destruction of buildings which has taken place on the Continent of Europe, and, incidentally, in Great Britain, educational establishments would have fared no better than other classes of property. On two other counts, however, it seemed probable that the facilities for the acquiring, and the pursuit, of scientific knowledge would have emerged from the War much impoverished. It was known, in the first place, that it was a policy of German occupation forces, certainly in some European countries, to repress and even to eliminate facilities for cultural advancement. In the second place, the scientific nature of the War gave a special value to scientific equipment and, although the capacity of Germany for the production of scientific instruments was very great indeed, it appeared likely that a large-scale removal into Germany of scientific instruments and apparatus might well have occurred in order to swell the German war effort.