XV-XVII Centuries Research Articles

REFLECTION OF SOCIO-CULTURAL TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE RENAISSANCE IN THE DECORATIVE AND APPLIED ARTS OF THE XV-XVI CENTURIES (ON THE EXAMPLE OF THE EVOLUTION OF THE EUROPEAN TRELLIS)

The article presents an analysis of European tapestries of the XV-XVI centuries, in the context of new artistic ideas and the needs of European society of the Renaissance. Analyzing the plots that formed the basis of the sketches that were used to make cardboard for tapestries, the authors trace the changes that took place in the socio-cultural life of European countries of this era. The circle of customers is expanding, they are now not only representatives of the highest. Describing the features of the artistic design of Renaissance tapestries created in France and Flanders, the authors convincingly prove that, despite the fact that the technique of making tapestries in the Renaissance did not change significantly, nevertheless, there are noticeable changes in the plot content. The tapestries reflected the General tendencies of the Renaissance to poetize man and the world. The Renaissance gave rise to an interest in the human person and in nature. The compositional solution has changed, and the plots have expanded significantly. Now, along with traditional religious biblical and allegorical motifs, tapestries are enriched with mythological and literary subjects, they reflect the events of ancient and modern history, and embody a certain propaganda of the image of Royal power.

Аристотель Фьораванти и его роль в формировании ансамбля Московского Кремля в XV-XVI вв.

The paper reveals Aristotele Fioravanti’s role in formation of Moscow Kremlin ensemble in the XV-XVI centuries. The article examines reasons to invite Fioravanti to Moscow, analyses the Italian period of his activity, special attention is paid to the architectural decisions implemented in Moscow Kremlin ensemble. Scientific originality of the study lies in the fact that Moscow period of Fioravanti’s activity is for the first time considered as effect of different factors - historical and political situation in Moscow Rus, artistic and ideological principles of the Italian Renaissance. The research findings are as follows: the author proves that Fioravanti’s creative conceptions influenced the Russian architecture development and laid a foundation for a large-scale reconstruction of the whole ensemble.

TRADITIONS OF NATIVITY DRAMA WITHIN THE OPERA ARTS OF UKRAINE

The article explores the ways of development of Ukrainian nativity drama - a genre of musical art that provides an opportunity to recreate the elusive breath of time, to learn not only about the world around but also the prospects for its preservation in Ukrainian culture. For the formation and development of the national musical culture of Ukraine, the traditions of Ukrainian nativity drama, the precondition of which was the folk music of national-historical orientation, became especially important. Besides, the folklore basis contributed to the formation of some professional genres, including opera and instrumental plays.
 The object of the research is the nativity drama within the opera art of Ukraine.
 The purpose of the article is to identify the features of the nativity scene as a musical and dramatic art form, which is an original monument of Ukrainian culture.
 It should be noted, that the nativity scene, especially the images of the second act, the type of its drama, had an impact on the development of Ukrainian musical and dramatic theater even in the XIX century. The mentioned influence was manifested, in particular, in the musical drama "Chornomorets", "Natalka Poltavka" by Lysenko, where folk song and dance are an integral part of the action and are a means of characterizing individual characters and dramatic situations. Some features of the character of Zaporozhets from the nativity scene were developed in the image of Karas from S. Gulak-Artemovsky's opera "Zaporozhets za Dynayem". Ukrainian music and drama art with its sources are associated with the ancient East Slavic agricultural and family holidays, games, dances, in which the element of dramatization played an important role since ancient times. Christmas games with costumes, Maslenitsa farewells, spring round dances, harvest festivals, autumn-winter round dances, and weddings became a rich source for the development of musical and theatrical art of the Ukrainian people in the XV–XVI centuries. To sum up, we can conclude that for the formation and development of the national musical culture of Ukraine in the XIX century, the Ukrainian opera became especially important, the precondition of the one was the folk music of national-historical orientation. Also, the folklore foundations, in particular the nativity scene, served to form professional genres including opera and instrumental plays.
 The study can be applied to prepare students and graduates in the field of Historical Sciences, Musicology, and Culturology.
 The significance and influence of nativity drama on the opera art of Ukraine have been studied, where the traditions of Ukrainian nativity scene, the precondition of which was the folk music of national-historical orientation, have been singled out.
 The study can be the basis for further study of the Ukrainian nativity drama of the XX–XXI centuries.

APPROVAL OF THE NOBILITY AND THE COSSACKS AS THE ANCESTORS OF THE STATE SERVICES IN UKRAINE AND POLAND, FROM KIN. XV ST. – TO THE LUBLIN UNION OF 1569

The essence, content and features of the genesis and establishment of the nobility and Cossacks in Ukraine and Poland from the end of XV – before the formation of the Commonwealth after the Union of Lublin in 1569, as social classes, which became the source for the formation of state (civil) service in these states. Ukrainian, Polish and Russian sources of kin are analyzed. XV – XVI centuries. on the emergence of the nobility and its social stratification and the establishment of the Commonwealth as a noble state, as well as on the origin of the phenomenon of the Cossacks and the Cossack state in Ukraine. The views of domestic and foreign historians and lawyers on the essence, content and purpose of the nobility and the Cossacks in the society and state of that time are generalized. It is emphasized that the nobility in Poland originated in Ser. XIV century. «From medieval chivalry, quite different in its mass, thanks to the acquisition of privileges from the monarch, which were no longer granted to a particular group, but to the general chivalry». But already in the XV-XVI centuries. the gentry becomes the defining political and military force of the Polish-Lithuanian state, is divided according to its social and property status into magnates, middle gentry, petty gentry and impoverished gentry, the so-called «Nakedness». At the same time, it is the middle nobility, first of all, the nobilitated, who become the basis of the civil service. The origin of the word «Cossack», which began to be used among the Tatars and the local population in the XIII-XIV centuries, has Turkic roots, and meant a horseman, a landless mercenary, as a member of the horde. In the XV century «Cossacking» became a form of uniting the Tatars with other peoples in self-governing military organizations for crafts. And only at the beginning. XVI century Cossacks began to form into military detachments of Slavs under the leadership of Predislav Lyantskoronsky to defend the outskirts (Ukraine) from arbitrariness and looting of the «steppe» (nomads). Further development of the Cossacks in the Ukrainian lands contributed to the formation of a pro- European militarized model of public service and the development of the Cossack state.

Analysis of the Scroll “Ba Bridge in the Snow”: The Results of the Creative Journey of Shen Zhou (1427–1509)

Shen Zhou is the founder of the Wumen-Pai movement, which was prominent in southern China in the XV–XVI centuries. Shen Zhou became famous as a poet, painter, and calligrapher. In the article, the late stage of his creative work is investigated by the example of the vertical scroll “Ba bridge in the snow”. The technique of monochrome writing and the composition of the winter landscape are analyzed. The article examines the influence of biographical and social factors, Confucian teachings and Taoist practices on Shen Zhou’s painting. A comprehensive study of the scroll makes it possible to reveal the master’s worldview. The scroll, without any topographical accuracy, depicts an imaginary view of the bridge on the Bashui River. The study of the poetic inscription demonstrates the discrepancy between the poetic rhyme and the rhythm of calligraphic forms. The gradations of ink tone in calligraphy combine it with the color of painting. Shen Zhou transfers the calligraphic technique of working with the wrist and holding the brush to painting. The scroll uses the composition type “one river three banks”, in which the elements mirror each other upside down. The artist creates a dynamic balance of empty and filled spaces. The most valuable quality of Shen Zhou painting is considered by Chinese experts to be its “desalination” (tribute), which implies a balanced mental attitude, sublime clarity of thoughts and heartfelt sincerity of their expression. Behind the simplicity and naturalness of Shen Zhou’s painting are effective energetic practices and a high mastery of hidden stylistic quotations from masterpieces of previous eras. By the end of his life, Shen Zhou realized the utopian ideal of unlimited longevity and, as the analysis of the scroll shows, found humility before the inevitability of death. Shen Zhou’s art has made his name famous for centuries.

The art of puppet theater in the Temurian period

This article discusses what the Uzbek puppet theater looked like during the Timurid era. In particular, the puppet theater is referred to in a special chapter of Navoi’s epic “Hayratulabror” about the XIV century, and about the situation in the XV-XVI centuries in the treatise “Futuvvatnomaisultoniy” by Hussein Voiz Kashifi. In conclusion, the development of the Uzbek puppet theater during the Timurid period and its importance among the intelligentsia.

Translators and interpreters from eastern languages in the Moscow state at the end of the XV-XVI centuries.

This article examines the process of formation of the translation service in the Moscow state during the late XV-XVI centuries. The repertoire of Eastern languages available to Moscow translation specialists is analyzed. The author came to the conclusion that among the eastern languages, the main language of negotiations and correspondence was the languages of the Turkic group, and the use of Farsi at this time is questionable. The original form of international communication in the Moscow state was oral, and written communication was considered less honorable and performed an official, auxiliary function. Gradually, at the turn of the XV-XVI, oral communication gave way to the exchange of embassy certificates. After the dispute between the rulers about the language of diplomatic correspondence in 1563, recorded in the Russian-Crimean diplomatic correspondence, the parties returned to the usual practice of exchanging messages and the Crimean Tatar language retained its role as the language of diplomatic communication. Three groups of specialists engaged in cross-language communication are identified. The most elite were the Bakshi translators, who specialized in translating and writing letters. The second group is the interpreters. They accompanied foreign embassies, ensured their communication with the host country, and performed diplomatic functions. The third group is the heads of the villages of the service Tatars, who performed, in addition to their direct duties, the functions of interpreters of oral speech. In the XVI century, tolmachestvo played the role of a launching pad for the children of bakshey and podyachy.

Рятівні археологічні дослідження у Краківському передмісті Львова

Results of rescuing archeological researches carried out by the expedition of SRC “Rescuing archaeological service” of IA of NAS of Ukraine led by N. Voitovych on the territory of building of private medical centre are presented at the article. During field season of 2013 archeological researches in Pidmurna Street, 5 were focused on the southern part of examined locality, where trench 2 with an area of 26.2 м² was dug. Through archeological researches remains of the foundation of Austrian building was discovered and also part of interior of basement (stone pavement) was found. In addition, wooden construction of residential use was discovered. It was destroyed in a fire in the second half of XVII century. A significant amount of mobile material in a good taphonomic condition was recorded in the infill of the building. It consisted of ceramic, glass and metal ware, tiles, metal products (stirrups, coins, crossbow arrowhead). At the southern wall of the trench, a cluster of wood was discovered, which served as a strengthening of the slope to prevent falling. The last one can be dated back to XVII–XVIII centuries. Another wooden construction was found in the cultural layers of XV–XVI centuries. It was also discovered anthropogenic layers that can be dated back from VIII century B.C. to XVIII–XIX centuries A. D. inclusively. Archaeological material, dated back from VIII century B.C. to XVIII century A. D. inclusively was found in the trench. It is established that the bedrock was found on the depth of 4.3–4.9 m, with a decrease to the north-eastern direction. A significant amount of mobile material was collected. The largest number of finds is represented by artifacts from Late Middle Ages (ceramic, glass and wooden ware, building ceramics, leather footwear, products made of metal), which indicates that population of the former Old Rus' suburbs not finished after the capture of Lviv by Kazimierz III and relocation of the city inside the walls, but on the contrary – obtained a new momentum to its further development, this time as a Krakow suburb of Lviv. Key words: Lviv, Pidmurna Street, archeological researches, wooden construction, ceramic ware, leather footwear, metal products.

ОТ АЛАНОВ К ОСЕТИНАМ. ОСЕТИНСКИЙ ФАКТОР В ИСТОРИИ СЕВЕРНОГО КАВКАЗА И ГРУЗИИ

The Mongol conquest and the invasion of Timur dealt a blow to the Alanian society and Christianity among the Alans. However, they launched the processes of Alans' eviction to the mountains and the ethnogenesis of Ossetians. Ossetians assimilated the Dvalians and a subethnos of Ossetians-Tuals was formed on the local soil in the XV-XVI centuries. Ossetians actively penetrated Georgia in the 16th-18th centuries. At the end of the 16th and 18th centuries. Kartli suffered from Ossetian raids on Georgian settlements. South Ossetians often did not pay their duties and robbed Georgians. The power of the Kartlian and Imeretian kings over the South Ossetians was relative, which did not exclude the granting of their lands to Machabeli and Eristavi. Also, the Ossetian peasants were under the rule of the state (king). With the arrival of Russian power in Georgia, the South Ossetians wanted to maintain their autonomy. It took the Russians a series of punitive expeditions in the 19th century to pacify the South Ossetians. They rebelled, responding to the calls of the Georgian princes. They opposed the Georgian Tavads, who were patronized by the Russian authorities. North Ossetian societies wanted to become Russian citizens in order to become independent from the Kabardian pshi. They wanted self-government and opposed imperial unification. The North Ossetians from the Tagauria and Kurtatia societies also rebelled against the Russians. Digoria and Alagiria became part of the Russian Empire voluntarily, but there were unrest among the Digorians. Before the arrival of the Russians, the Ossetian societies were in close cooperation with the Kabardian pshi. The ties between Digoria and Kabarda were especially close. Under Kabardian influence, feudalism developed in Digoria and Tagauria, and local Ossetians were vassals of Little and Greater Kabarda. Ossetians acted as allies of the Kabardians against the Crimean khans. The Ottomans and Qizilbashs came to the Ossetian lands sporadically and this was not accompanied by the subordination of the Ossetians to these Turkic states. Relations with the Nakhs were good neighborly. The Ingush and Chechens found shelter for the Ossetian nobility who fled from blood feud. A number of Ingush surnames were of Ossetian origin. Ossetian colonization led to the displacement of the Ossetian-Ingush border to the east. Relations between Ossetians and Balkars were good-neighborly. Ossetians were moved to Balkaria. We can only talk about a certain influence of Georgia in Ossetia in the 15th and 17th centuries. Some part of the Ossetian nobility joined the Imeretian and Kartlian aristocracy. Despite all the difficulties, Christianity in Ossetia was preserved and maintained thanks to contacts with Georgia. The Islamization of the Ossetians was superficial and mainly affected only the social top. The term syncretism is best suited to characterize the religion of the Ossetians, where Christianity and Islam were combined with traditional beliefs. Key words: Ossetians, Kabardians, Ingush, Kartli, Russians, Digoria, Alagiriya, Kurtatia, Tagauria

A new aesthetic proposal for “Men at arms” by Donato Bramante

During the refurbishing of the “Lombard Art of the XV-XVI century” department at the Pinacoteca di Brera (Milan), concluded in 2018, the Conservation and Restoration Center “La Venaria Reale” had the opportunity to study and restore the famous pictorial cycle of Men at Arms by Donato Bramante (1488-89). The paper aims to present the methodological approach and the results obtained with the last conservation treatment, aimed at a new and updated aesthetic proposal for the pictorial cycle. The main objective was to re-establish the unity of the images, compromised by the numerous lacunae left visible by previous treatments, respecting at the same time the material features of the paintings and the evidence of their particular conservative history.The interdisciplinary work group* has reconstructed the complex conservative history of the detached wall paintings, thanks to the technical observation of the surfaces and the scientific characterization of the constituent materials. The results were compared with the available historical documentation, in particular with historical photographs. The project allowed us to retrace the profound changes that the concept of pictorial integration has encountered over time, from the beginning of the twentieth century to the present day. The conservation treatment also originated from the need of the Pinacoteca di Brera to update the aesthetic presentation of the works, facilitating the reading of the fragmented images due to numerous lacunae. d images due to numerous lacunae.

Review of: Chirkin V.A. Transformation of the traditional agrarian structures of Germany in the XV-XVI centuries: Thuringia and Saxony at the turn of the Middle Ages and early modern times: a monograph

Review of: Chirkin V.A. Transformation of the traditional agrarian structures of Germany in the XV-XVI centuries: Thuringia and Saxony at the turn of the Middle Ages and early modern times: a monograph

Variation Cycles of Mark Andre Hamelin: Composer Interpretation of the Genre

Relevance of the study. Variation form is one of the most popular forms that for many centuries of its existence continues to attract the attention of composers, performers, and has a welldeveloped theoretical basis in musicology. One example of this creative interpretation varicent acts composing the heritage of the Canadian piano virtuoso M.-A. Hamelin, who in his variation cycles demonstrates a new approach to their interpretation. Among them is the use of methods of variation, which were used in the music of the XV–XVI centuries, for example, coloring, the imitation of the composition specifics cantus firmus. M.-A. Hamelin also uses very peculiar means of variation, which are not taken into account in traditional classifications and require separate consideration among which are methods of parody, working with the model, the principle of variation.The Main objective of the study is to determine interpretation’s specifics of the variation cycle in the composer's work of M.-A. Hamelin. Since the composer's legacy and the specifics of the artist's individual style have not yet received full scientific coverage, this determines the relevance of the chosen theme.Methodology the study is based on an integrated approach which is based on the structural-functional, genre-stylistic, historical and monographic methods. The methodological basis consists of scientific works are devoted to the variational forms, varicent and variability, a review of contemporary composition techniques, artistic techniques for working with borrowed thematic material, and specifics of the individual composing style.Results and conclusions. The genre of variations, has a long history of development in the composition and performing arts, continues to be relevant in the XXI century, attracting the attention of contemporary artists. Confirmation of this can be the composing work of Canadian piano virtuoso M.-A. Hamelin, whose embodiment of this genre is quite original. Interpreting the cycles individually, the composer demonstrates concert-virtuoso and chamber samples. Each of them has an original solution in terms of compositional construction of the whole, and in detail. Typical for the interpretation of this genre is the use within one work of much more foreign thematic material than stated by the composer in the title. Quite often, the artist tends to cross-cutting development, combining several variations of the cycle, while clearly cutting sections of the form. The artist applies the methods of variation inherent in the music of the XV–XVI centuries. Coloring, imitation of the specific composition on cantus firmus, which are manifested in modified melodic and rhythmic structure of the original in such a way that the main reference melodic-rhythmic and harmonic outlines are preserved providing thematism recognition of its original source. Also the composer's style as a whole and the interpretation of the variation cycle is characterized by the introduction of citation material in re-arranged, not original form.Significance. The obtained results can be used for a deeper understanding of the specifics of the individual composer style of M.-A. Hamelin, as well as some trends in the modern development of piano art

Angelical music XVI-XVIII centuries music from the New World

CARLOTTA PUPULIN Baroque Harp Supervisor: Dr. Inês de Avena Braga Title: Angelical music for a New World Research question: How did music develop in Hispanic America between the XV-XVII centuries?

Семантическая оппозиция «истина - ложь» в структуре дихотомии «Бог - дьявол» (на материале житийных текстов XV-XVII веков)

By the material of hagiographic literature of the XV-XVII centuries, the article examines the lexemes possessing the meanings “truth” and “lie”, which simultaneously are the means to represent the concepts GOD and DEVIL. The paper aims to reveal the influence of these semantic meanings on the formation of the conceptions of God and Devil. Scientific originality of the study lies in the fact that the author for the first time provides a comprehensive linguo-axiological analysis of the mentioned semantic opposition as a component of the dichotomy “God - Devil”. Hagiographical works of the XV-XVII centuries served as the research material. The research findings are as follows: the author identifies semantic peculiarities of lexemes - representatives of the concepts GOD and DEVIL, in which the semes “truth” and “lie” are presented either explicitly or implicitly, reveals a mechanism for the formation of the “God - Devil” opposition on the basis of the specific opposition “truth - lie”.

La trasmissione dell’'ars dialectica' tra i secoli XV e XVI: Lorenzo Valla e Pierre de la Ramée

This essay addresses the theme of the transmission of knowledge starting from the process of traslatio studiorum. Such phenomenon – which occurred between the ancient Greece and occidental Europe since the medieval period – was intended as the triggering phenomenon of a whole series of transmission processes, persisted untill the Renaissance. It is my intention to propose a double riding, considering the Mediterranean area as a transient space, where different current of thoughts have been screened by speculative and linguistical filters, represented by the overlapping of commentators and translators. 
 On first place, I intend to identify this phenomenon of knowledge's transmission, understood as transcultural process, taken in his historical connotation, that is as a process that commutes from one century to another. Secondly, considering the Arabic intervention concerning the translation and comment of Aristotelian auctoritates, I would like to analyze the delicate process of transmission and contamination between different systems of thought. Within these coordinates, it is my intention to focus on the contact between two systems of thought that applied such approaches in the Dialectic field, namely Lorenzo Valla's and Pierre de la Ramée's, better known as Petrus Ramus. I will take the cases of Valla and Ramus as examples of this phenomenon of translation: first, in the historical sense, since there is a shift of approach from century to century; secondly, in a geographical sense that affects the Mediterranean area, as both Valla and Ramus dealth with the linguistic problems linked to dialectic received from the Arabic heritage. I argue that these speculative currents might have come into contact, first, as the product of a long process of translatio studiorum, and then, as heirs of a tradition that had been influenced by the transmissions that had taken place in the Mediterranean.
 In conclusion, the purpose of this note is to show the preliminary and little debated issue of the possible contact between two paradigms of thought which justified a change in the approach of the study of Dialectic between the major Italian centers of knowledge of the XV century and XVI century Paris. This creates the space for some hints of acclimatization of Valla's dialectic at the Ramus paradigm, thanks to the shifting of attention from the perfectly solid linguistic practice in Valla's logical philological method to the correct procedures of reasoning that were completely detached from the metaphysics dimension and projected towards the institution of the Methodus.
 

Evolution of Image of the Moscow State in Historical Works of Jan Dlugosh and Matvey Mehovsky: Second Half of XV - First Third of XVI Centuries

The article is devoted to the evolution of the image of the Moscow principality, and then the state in the works of Polish chroniclers of the XV-XVI centuries Jan Dlugosh and Matvey Mekhovsky. Attention is paid to the characteristics of Moscow, and how these characteristics changed as it strengthened. Particular attention is paid to the assessments of J. Dlugosh and M. Mekhovsky regarding their contemporary Moscow princes and rulers of Poland and Lithuania, as well as the expansion of the territory of the Moscow principality. Respect for Moscow princes and criticism of Polish rulers are especially noted. Based on a comparative analysis of the news of J. Dlugosh and M. Mekhovsky, a growing interest in the Moscow state is shown, a geographical description of which is given by M. Mekhovsky. The work shows that the Polish chroniclers have not yet been interested in the internal political history of Moscow - all references were exclusively related to Polish or Lithuanian events. The relevance of the study is due to the role played by Polish historiography of the XV-XVI centuries in shaping the image of the Moscow state, Russia in Europe, in particular, M. Mekhovsky’s Treatise on the Two Sarmatians.

Surface analysis of corroded XV–XVI century copper coins by μ-XRF and μ-PIXE/μ-EBS self-consistent analysis

Particle Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) and X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) are nowadays routinely used for analysing historical coins. However, its characterization, especially in the presence of a superficial chemically altered layer (corrosion), is difficult due to its layered structure which cannot be probed using these two techniques in the general case. Elastic backscattering (both Rutherford and non-Rutherford) spectrometry is commonly used to determine depth profiles but by its own it is insufficient to unveil these complex structures. Using a PIXE detector and a particle detector recording simultaneously it is possible to perform a self-consistent analysis to obtain results about concentration variation of different elements along depth. In the present work this method was tested for two Portuguese centenary copper-based coins, and XRF was used to complement PIXE information. It is shown that elemental depth profiles with the evaluation of the superficial altered layer can be clearly solved providing relevant results about corrosion extension and composition.

De la calendele romane la colindele creștine

The carols, as the joy of humanity, represent the expression of the communication of divine love to man who is willing to a divine-human dialogue, announcing the restoration and redefinition of a new anthropological perspective oriented towards the indestructible values o f the divine-human Person of the Savior Jesus Christ. spiritual horizon to a happy existence and eternal life. Knowing that the function of carols is the manifestation of the sacred and the internalized and subjective presence of the person or persons evoked, during Christmas, so in winter, the question that arises is how these traditions and customs for spring came to be put into practice in the winter season, even before the middle of the cold season? Most collisions refer to Dalbe Flowers, apple blossoms… (a tree that blooms in March), a prior lamb, although we are on New Year’s Eve, around January 1, and it can not be about the period when the sheep have lambs. In the text of Plugușor we speak ofplowing and sowing, being in December, when mud and frost are present. You go with the plow and imitate the plowing gesture and try to pull the furrow into the ground, although most of the time, on December 30, it is frozen and it is blizzard outside. Where does all this come from? The reality of the presence in the texts of carols of some terms from the sphere of administrative organization of Wallachia, from the XV-XVII centuries represents a way of preserving and rooting the Christian spirituality but also of the national values in time, through carols.

ИНОСТРАНЦЫ В МОСКОВИИ КОНЦА XV-XVI вв.: ВОСПРИЯТИЕ ЗАСТРОЙКИ И АРХИТЕКТУРЫ РУССКИХ ГОРОДОВ

The article considers the peculiarities of foreigners' perception of Russian cities, their development, planning and architecture during the late XV-XVI centuries. The restoration of a single state, called Muscovy in Europe, has attracted the attention of many countries, communities, and individuals seeking to establish profitable political, commercial, and cultural ties with Russia. Russian cities, especially the capital, with unusual layout, buildings and architecture fall into the sphere of attention of foreigners. In their assessments of Russian realities, the authors proceeded from their own ideas and interests that developed in other historical and cultural conditions. For this reason, they often preferred European cities and buildings. As Russia's contacts with foreign countries develop, foreigners' knowledge of Russian cities becomes more accurate.

Theoretical essence of investment and investment-one process in investing firm energy enterprises

The article examines the theoretical nature of investment and the investment process in investing in agricultural enterprises. It is noted that the investment theory began to take shape simultaneously with the world market, the development of which was caused by the great geographical discovery of the XV-XVI centuries. The investment theory of the era of mercantilism is considered. It was proved that they identified the wealth of the nation with money, and money with precious metals. In the works of physiocrats, investment was considered as a process aimed at restoring and increasing capital, with the help of which not only production in agriculture is carried out, but national wealth as a whole grows. Representatives of the school of neoclassical direction, it was determined that the proposal is governed by the bank interest rate, which acts as the offer price in the capital market, and demand - the rate of return on invested capital, which gets the entrepreneur. It is proved that in the broad sense of Keynesian investment theory can be considered protectionist, since it promotes the protection of the national economy from foreign investment. Based on an analysis of investment research, leading foreign and domestic scientists have made certain conclusions in determining the nature of investments and the investment process in investing in agricultural enterprises. Considered the main factors affecting the volume of investment. Focused on an investment project. It has been proven that the development and implementation of an investment project (primarily a production focus) under market conditions consists of three phases: pre-investment (a preliminary study before the final investment decision); investment (design, contract, contract, construction) and production (phase of economic activity of the enterprise). In turn, these phases are divided into stages and stages: investment motivation, forecasting and programming of investments, rationale for investment, insurance of investments, government regulation of the investment process, investment planning, financing of the investment process, design and pricing, provision of investments with material and technical resources, development of investments, preparation for production, previous delivery and acceptance into operation, final Dacha facility. The significance of the investment component of the development and operation of an agricultural enterprise is described, the role of which is exacerbated in the context of the instability of the economic environment and the permanent lack of financial resources. Keywords:investment project, financial resources, net profit margin, lending rate, inflation.