XIV-XV Centuries Research Articles

Интеллектуальное пространство позднесредневекового Лондона

The article examines various elements of the intellectual landscape of London in the XIV–XVcenturies, whichcreated and disseminated knowledge of different levels. It is shown that the city has favorable conditions for the realization by citizens of the need to teach literacy not only in Latin and French, but also in English. The social demand of wealthy merchants and artisan masters for secular, practice-oriented knowledge and skills has led to the emergence of new licensed grammar and singing schools, as well as an increasing number of informal schools. Successful merchants, the “fathers of the city”, took a direct part in their creation and maintenance, and in the financial support of teachers. The citizens were also interested in attracting highly educated men – theologians, preachers – from Oxford and Cambridge to London, who significantly complemented the intellectual landscape of the city. Londoners realized and at the same time nurtured their intellectual demands due to the presence of famous authors of the XIV–XV centuries in the city, as well as the presence of manuscripts and books in booksellers’ shops, in various libraries – not only in monasteries and parish churches, but also in “public libraries” and located in the homes of rich merchants.

Iconography of the Mythological Characters in the Divine Comedy Manuscripts of the XIV-XV Centuries: Functions and Iconographical Sources

The history of illustration of Dante’s Divine Comedy in the 14th-15th centuries rarely attracts the attention of researchers. Nevertheless, a careful analysis of some manuscripts would clarify the genesis process of specific iconographic schemes within the framework of a very specific task: illustrating a text replete with figures of speech and references to ancient sources that were often unknown to the iconography designer. This contribute is devoted to the iconography of mythological characters found in Dante’s text and their visual sources based on a few manuscripts of the Divine Comedy dated from mid-14th and 15th centuries, six of which are fully illustrated.

Юридический язык средневековых русских купчих на землю XIV–XV вв.

This article aims to examine the history of the emergence of legal terms and expressions used in the drafting of land deeds in Russian territories during the XIV–XV centuries. The content of land deeds from this period indicates that over the centuries in medieval Russia, a distinct legal language was formed through which transactions for the sale and purchase of land were formalized. Analyzing the terminology and speech patterns used in the drafting of land deeds not only allows for a deeper understanding of our ancestors’ perceptions of the sequence of actions accompanying the process of land alienation through sale and purchase but also traces the transformation of certain commonly used words from Old Russian and Old Church Slavonic into legal terms. The findings of the study suggest that the legal language of medieval Russian land deeds was shaped by the oral practice of concluding real estate transactions predominantly based on the lexicon and linguistic expressions of the Old Russian language. In conclusion, the study of the legal language of medieval Russian land deeds sheds light on the evolution of legal terminology and linguistic practices in the region. The incorporation of traditional linguistic elements into legal discourse underscores the importance of historical context in understanding legal language. Moving forward, continued research into the linguistic and legal aspects of medieval land deeds will contribute to our understanding of the legal history of Russia and its linguistic heritage.

Тверской Федоровский монастырь в XIV–XV вв.

The article contains material from written sources regarding the Fedorovsky Tver Monastery in the XIV–XV centuries. These data are scarce and, due to the peculiarities of the landscape, are not supplemented by archeology. The monastery was located on an island (on the Tmaka River). Fedorov Monastery is one of the first Tver monasteries. The time of the emergence of the monastery is determined – no later than 1316–1317. These years date back to the manuscript – the charter in Greek, created in the monastery (now kept in the Vatican Library). A significant part of the monks of the monastery in its initial period were Greeks. Subsequently, the monastery became an Arkhimandritiya. The article considers the possible terms for obtaining such a status. Annalistic work was carried out in the Fedorovsky Monastery. In the middle of the XV century Tver Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich moved the monastery inside the city wall, and moved the Arkhimandritiya to the monastery of Gregory the Theologian.

Контакты генуэзской Газарии и Персии по материалам «Актов генуэзских нотариев»

Introduction. The article examines the features of economic relations between the Black Sea region and the Persian region within the West Asian system of international relations of the Late Middle Ages. The relevance of the research consists in addressing a little-studied topic in order, firstly to identify and generalize existing knowledge, and secondly to discover new ones using previously unexplored source base. Materials and methods. In the article toponymic, onomastic and other evidence of the existence of persistent economic interaction between the Northern Black Sea region and the states of the territory of modern Iran are shown based on the material of Russian modern historiography and the sources of the collection "Acts of Genoese Notaries". There were used statistical and typological methods, and also the method of content analysis of Genoese act material of the XIV–XV century. Results. A number of problematic issues have been successfully resolved, for example, the degree of usefulness of the Genoese act material for works on this topic or the degree of its study in Russian historiography. Conclusion. The encountered difficulties are formulated as specific problems to be solved in the course of future research, based on the material of high-precision source material, the available historiographical evidence on this problem is confirmed and clarified to a certain extent. Soviet and modern historiography has shown, however, a clearly insufficient level of study of the problem of the Western Asian-Black Sea economic relations of the Late Middle Ages. In these studies, it is reflected at a specific level - almost only in the form of an inventory of goods and a list of settlements and regions with which trade was carried out.

Lexical units of Arabic origin in the Azerbaijani literary language of XIV-XV centuries

Lexical units of Arabic origin in the Azerbaijani literary language of XIV-XV centuries

APPLICATION OF NETNOGRAPHY METHODS IN THE STUDY OF MUSLIM PILGRIMS AND VISITORS TO THE HOLY PLACES OF THE REPUBLIC OF BASHKORTOSTAN

The number of pilgrims and visitors to the holy places of the Republic of Bashkortostan increases every year. New objects of worship are being built in the region every year and old ones are being improved. This article is devoted to the study of pilgrimage in Bashkiria at the present stage.
 
 The purpose of the article is to analyze the reasons for the increase in the number of pilgrims and the existing trends of religious tourism in Bashkiria.
 
 Materials and methods. Within the framework of the study, the materials of the field expedition were used, which were achieved through such methods as questionnaire, survey and overt observation. The methods of cyberethnography were also applied: the analysis of the Internet community, whose actors participate in events organized at the holy sites of the Southern Urals, was carried out.
 
 Scientific novelty. This work is the first to study a sharp increase in pilgrimage in Bashkiria after 2019. In addition, the author applied overt observation in the expedition, which was last carried out by ethnographers on these monuments in 2010. Currently, foreign and domestic scientists are actively implementing the method of cyberethnography in the study of modern trends, the author of the article for the first time uses the method of cyberethnography in the study of religious pilgrimage in the Republic of Bashkortostan.
 
 Study results. During the expedition, a survey of tourists, guides and pilgrims was conducted at the mausoleum of Kuseynbek and Tura Khan in Chishminsky district of the Republic of Bashkortostan, and at the Ilchigulovo-IV burial mound (sacred mountain Narystau) in Miyakinsky district of the Republic of Bashkortostan, a questionnaire was also compiled for a group of tourists from Ufa and an analysis of pilgrims by gender and age using cyberethnography methods was carried out. As a result of the conducted research, it was found that the flow of pilgrims and tourists to the holy places of the region increases annually.
 
 Conclusions. The most active visitors to the holy places are the Muslims associated with Sufi brotherhoods. Most of the Muslims’ holy places are organized on the site of archaeological sites of the XIV–XV centuries. According to demographic characteristics, tourists are mostly middle-aged and elderly women, which shows the need to improve the infrastructure for leisure and walking.

ПОЛИТИЧЕСКОЕ ТЕЛО, МИКРОКОСМ И ЗОДИАКАЛЬНЫЙ ЧЕЛОВЕК: МЕТАФОРА ТЕЛА В АНГЛИЙСКОМ И ФРАНЦУЗСКОМ РЕЛИГИОЗНО-ФИЛОСОФСКОМ И ПОЛИТИЧЕСКОМ ДИСКУРСЕ XIV–XV ВВ.

One of the most popular concepts during the Antiquity and Middle Ages was the metaphor of the body which manifested the ideas of unity and coexistence in harmony of various parts of the whole. It was closely tied up with the mythological imagery of protoplast on one hand and with the conceptualization of social unity on the other, for example, with the concept of Church as the mystical body of Christ. Microcosm was one of the embodiments of this image representing the idea of the indissoluble existence of the individual, his body and the rest of the world — this concept continued to be reproduced in the religious/philosophical texts of XIV–XVth cc. From this doctrine of microcosm also arose the Medieval medical theory of humors, fluids of human body, associated with four elements, at the meantime “zodiac man” was the equivalent of microcosm in Medieval astrology, visual representation of a belief in the impact of celestial bodies on the health and mental qualities of people. Finally, the metaphor of the body politic clearly demonstrated the unity of different estates in a single body of the state, it can be considered one of the first forms of reflection on society and politics in the XIV–XV centuries.

Тема «русского мира» в памятниках эпохи становления Московского государства

The concept of the “Russian world” has been actualized at present due to the recent geopolitical events but its origins are found already in the early specimens of the Old Russian texts. Gradually, the theme of the “Russian world” became prominent in the Russian literature. It is specifically expressed in the monuments that tell us about the crucial moments in the history of Russia as they also focus on the historical destiny of the state. The theme of the “Russian world” in the texts of the XIV–XV centuries becomes acute because of the victory in the Battle of Kulikovo and the idea of unification of the Russian state under the leadership of Moscow. The Russian world in the monuments of that period is a specific civilizational space, the geographical centre of which is transferred from Kiev to Moscow.
 The image of a strong ruler, the leader of the Russian world, is idealized in the literature. Dmitry Donskoy appears in the texts as such a ruler. The literary texts of the XIV–XV centuries describe a particular person who serves the Fatherland. In the Zadonshchina and the Tale of Mamai’s Debacle, the idea of the unity of the entire Russian world against the enemy comes to the fore and is reflected in the spatial organization of texts, the all-Russian geography, the juxtaposition of time layers which testifies to the commonality of history and succession of generations, and in the appearance of the motive of sacrifice for the peaceful future. In the Song about the Life of <…> Dmitry Donskoy, the Duke is a successor of his great ancestors who possesses high moral and spiritual qualities, which, in the author’s understanding, a true person of the Russian world should possess. The Life of Sergius of Radonezh focuses on the spiritual protection of the Saint over Russia and his significant role in uniting the Russian lands. The Three Messages <…>. of Kirill Belozersky contains proposals for the arrangement of the renewed Russian world. With help of the monuments, we can distinguish characteristic features of the Russian world: the commonality of history, the independence of the state, the Christianity, fortitude, courage, and sacrifice in the name of the Fatherland.

CYCLE OF POEMS «FORTY HEROES OF CRIMEA» IN THE RESEARCH OF SERIKBOL KONDYBAY

The cycle of poems" Forty heroes of Crimea" is a historical and artistic narrative of the transformation of peoples of Turkic origin into several state structures, as well as their spiritual formation. A new area of research related to the "Forty heroes of Crimea" should be considered to determine the area of formation and spiritual basis of the phenomena of "Nogai genealogy", "kazakhization, Kazakh origin" through the study of educational information in the linguistic potential of the poem. In fact, it can be seen that the study of "the historical and geographical space of the poem, the linguistic and poetic environment that gives rise to the poem " has been neglected as an open problem. The cycle of poems was born in the era of the Golden Horde, in the XIV-XV centuries, formed the scientific axiom "nogaili zhyrau tradition", which gave birth to the poem, and any of the researchers worked on further scientific substantiation of this axiom, the search for scientific and historical evidence in different directions around this truth. The cycle of poems is studied in a philological, partly historical background. In addition, the linguistic description of the cycle of the poem was limited to explaining the meaning of individual words in the text (which is also not a complete historical and etymological analysis), giving a list of toponymic, anthroponymic, ethnonymic names. A new comprehensive method of studying the cycle of poems "Forty heroes of Crimea", founded by S. Kondybay, is intended to consolidate, summarize and systematize the knowledge base in the subjects of Geography, History, Literary Studies (folklore studies, mythology), philosophy, and theology in one linguistic space. In this article, we will analyze the works of S. Kondybay, who considered the genesis of such a historical and poetic work as "Forty heroes of Crimea" in a new direction, and make efforts to reveal the methodology of his research. A new comprehensive method of studying the cycle of poems "Forty heroes of Crimea", founded by S. Kondybay, is intended to consolidate, summarize and systematize the knowledge base in the subjects of Geography, History, Literary Studies (folklore studies, mythology), philosophy, and theology in one linguistic space. In this article, we will analyze the works of S. Kondybay, who considered the genesis of such a historical and poetic work as "Forty heroes of Crimea" in a new direction, and make efforts to reveal the methodology of his research.

The Church of Pobeten in the XIV–XV centuries: historical and virtual reconstruction

The purpose of our work is to study the history and virtual reconstruction of the church of Pobeten, an object of historical and cultural heritage of the XIV-XV centuries. The method of analogy, creation of a digital model, photogrammetry, methods of historical informatics were used in the work. Special attention is paid to the history of the church of Pobeten and the work on creating its virtual copy. It describes working with various tools (Agisoft Metashape, Sculptris Alpha, Geomagic Studio and Sketch Up) to create photogrammetric and three-dimensional models of a historical object of the XIV century. The possibilities of using photogrammetry and three-dimensional modeling methods in the synthesis to create a virtual reconstruction of the Pobeten church are considered. The result of the work was the receipt of versatile historical data about the church of Pobeten and a virtual three-dimensional model based on them, which has the ability to edit: it can be supplemented with various elements, as well as integrated into larger works. The scope of application of the work and the results obtained can be historical local lore, preservation of objects of historical heritage, the use of the resulting product in museum installations. An interdisciplinary approach in historical research combined with computer science methods, specifically with three-dimensional computer modeling, provides exceptional opportunities, especially with the growth of information technology development, and is an actual tool of historical research in modern science.

Meditation and Contemplation: Word and Image at the Service of Medieval Spirituality

The use of images in intimate piety in the XIV–XV centuries responded to the need to create a mental reality that would be complemented by the imitation of Jesus’, Mary’s and the saints’ lives turned into models of permanent emulation. The faithful were expected to show the same qualities as these divine characters, so spiritual practices acquired ethical and public implications. Devotional objects played a central role in meditation, affecting the senses and the soul directly. The religious effigy provoked an empathy with what was viewed and helped by jogging the memory and feelings about the holy figures in all stages of their lives, varying the emotions to the detriment of each event. If one thought, for example, of the risen Christ, one would experience joy, but if one meditated on His Passion, one would become afflicted by sorrow. The dissemination of these habits of contemplating the images and the numerous treatises concerned with directing evocation are sufficient evidence to confirm the triumph of visuality for the excitement of piety.

Дитина і дитинство у німецькому місті XIV-XV ст.

The purpose of the article is to study the characteristic features and typologi- cal regularities of a child’s position and attitude to childhood in the bourgeois environment of German cities of the XIV-XV centuries. Th e methodological basis of the research is based on the principles of historicism and objectivity. Analytical, problem-chronological, comparative, and systemic methods have been used during the research. Th e scientifi c novelty is justifi ed by the comprehensive involvement of sources and historiography that highlight the situation of children and childhood in a German city of the XIV-XV centuries, as well as the need to supp- lement domestic research on this topic. Conclusions. During the late Middle Ages, changes in the perception of a child and childhood took place, particularly in the cities of Germany in the XIV-XV centuries. Such elements of previous centuries as the involvement of children in work before their physical maturity and the opportunity to master the profession of their own parents are still relevant for the German burgher community of the late Middle Ages. At the same time, German cities are beginning to introduce obstetric rules that regulate the acceptance of child- birth and control the process of childbirth. In the second half of the XV century, parents’ attitude towards their off spring changed: children are beginning to be seen as potential guardians of their parents in their old age, as well as helpers in their professional activities. Orphanages begin to appear in Augsburg, Esslingen, Munich, Nuremberg, etc. Conventional traditional division of the stages of childhood, which was widespread in late medieval Germany, in particular in cit- ies, consisted of three periods: the fi rst – from 6 to 7 years, the second – from 7 to 14 years, the third – from 14 years and older. Such terms denoted these stages as “infantia” (“childhood”), “pueritia” (“youth”), and “adolescentia” (“adolescence”), respectively. Illegitimate children had a special status in a late medieval German city: access to craft s was closed to them, as well as the possibility of obtaining a position in the city council. Th e period when a child could already be involved in work depended on general ideas about physical maturation. Usually, children’s capacity for work began at the age of 8, when they could partially engage in the same activities as adults. Th e age at which parents stop caring for their children is directly correlated with their off spring marrying or having their own children.

Canonical and geopolitical conditions of formation of the Lithuanian Metropolis XIV-XV centuries. Part IІ.

Canonical and geopolitical conditions of formation of the Lithuanian Metropolis XIV-XV centuries. Part IІ.

THE HISTORY OF THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE CONCEPT OF HEALTH

The article gives an idea of health and diseases in various historical epochs. Depending on the historical period, there is a different amount of information about medicine, including diseases and the concept of «Health». This is due to the amount of archaeological and documentary evidence. For a long time, ideas about health have been closely linked with religion. Hippocrates and other scientists of the ancient world at the heart of health determined the state of equilibrium of the four main fluids. With the development of anatomy, physiology and medicine, the development of diseases was considered as damage to anatomical structures and disruption of their functions. In the XIV-XV centuries, a direction appeared that considers the influence of social and social factors on human health. In the XIX century, the ideas of health and disease are further developed based on physiological and anatomical studies. The German Anatomical School compared the concepts of human health and pathology, linked the development of diseases with changes in cells. During the 20th century, on the one hand, medicine became more and more molecular and submicroscopic; on the other hand, global attention to people, both healthy and sick, resumed, which gave rise to synergetic, multifaceted definitions of health. The World Health Organization in 1946 formulated the definition of health as «a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not just the absence of diseases or physical defects.» In the future, this concept was repeatedly criticized, as it considered health as an ideal and brought it closer to the concept of happiness. Today it is obvious that the concept of health is a multifactorial concept and, in addition to the medical component, is closely related to other areas of human life: sociology, ecology, cultural studies, economics, etc.

Political ties between the Оttoman state and Byzantine empire (according to byzantine sources)

In the XIV century, the Turkish conquest of Asia Minor and the establishment of the Ottoman sultanate made this state border with Byzantium.The interstate border shaped the conditions of the war and led to the emergence of political problems. At the same time, mutual good neighborly relations and political processes have been established between the states, which lasted more than a century and a half. Relations between the two states were at different levels, which depended on political issues. Byzantine sources provide new information about the relationship between these states. This scientific paper discusses the history of the Turko-Byzantine relationship, from the formation of the Ottoman Sultanate to the capture of Constantinople by the Turks according to Byzantine sources. Based on the information presented in the chronicles of medieval Byzantine authors, the movement of the Turks in Asia Minor in the XIV-XV centuries, their political pressure on Byzantium, as well as interstate diplomatic and trade relations are explored. The main directions of relations between the Ottoman Sultanate and Byzantium and their political significance are analyzed. The policy and expansion of the Ottomans in the Balkans and the position of the Byzantine Empire regarding the development of the Turkish state are studied. Under studying political events between the two states, conducting a comparative analysis and studying Byzantine sources are  considered one of the main tasks of the article. Key words: Ottoman state, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine sources, Byzantine chronicles, External relations.

THE PUZZLE OF A HORN: AN ETYMOLOGY FOR THE WORD GEMSHORN

This paper is aimed at providing an etymological reconstruction for the word gemshorn (and the term pifana/pivana), which indicates a wind musical instrument, generally considered pastoral or rustic, produced from the horn of an ungulated animal.The etymological reconstruction proposed in this article allows to postulate prehistoric origins, for the gemshorn, dating back way before the XIV-XV Century, the time in which the folk instrument starts, plausibly, to be attested in Europe, in manuscripts, art, and material culture.In particular, by delineating a possible Indo-European and, then, Proto-Germanic, proto-form, for the word, it is possible to date it back to at least the Neolithic, and even to the Mesolithic. The term indicating the instrument, after the Common Indo-European stage, would have been only preserved in Germanic languages and in the Germanic context.
 The paper is also aimed at showing that the names of some (folk) musical instruments can survive, over time, in oral tradition without being recorded in historical official sources, and that their origins can be, by far, more ancient than the times in which the first attestations of their names in written documents – or their appearance in art and/or in material culture – are findable and recorded.

Medieval Shields of Europe and Rus’ (Construction, Military Symbolic Significance, Development)

The article considers the problem of the development of shields, the main element of medieval protective equipment, and an important military and heraldic symbol in Ukrainian medieval state of Rus’ and in Europe in general. The state of the research and the source base are outlined. The main trends in the development of the design and symbolic significance of shields in Europe during the Middle Ages are outlined. At the same time, emphasis was placed on sources concerning Rus’ lands and adjacent territories. The author draws attention to the need to compare archaeological, written and iconographic sources in one study. The study focuses on the most representative sources, especially those that can be to apply on material from the Rus’ lands. It is emphasized that the shield as a basic element of protective equipment during the Middle Ages, іn Rus’ lands largely developed in line with European trends. Which in turn makes it impossible to isolate local features about to beginning of the ХІІІ century. At the turn of the XII–XIII centuries in some regions of Eastern Europe, namely the Rus’-Baltic-Polish border, a relatively new type of shield is being formed, the so-called “protopaveza”. This in turn had a direct impact on the armaments of Rus’ and the Teutonic Order in the ХІІІ–ХІV centuries. The author analyzes the main interactions and borrowings of types of shields between different regions of Eastern Europe during the Middle Ages. It is noted that in the Ukrainian medieval state of Rus’, which was at the intersection of Eastern and Western military traditions, shields of both European types and the eastern “kalkan” could be used. However, given the available sources, it is safe to say that the European trend of development of this protective equipment had an advantage. The author came to the conclusion that the shields used in Rus’ and Europe in the X–XII centuries generally belonged to the same types. In particular, it is round, almond-shaped and triangular shields. The issue of shields of the XIII–XV centuries remains more complicated. During this period can be observed as the influence of Western Europe on Rus’, for example, the spread of the knight's “tarch”. And trends that began in Eastern Europe, namely the spread of pavises in the XIV–XV centuries.

Нумізматичні досліди Івана Заяця (замітки на маргінесі української нумізматики)

After World War II the development of special (auxiliary) historical disciplines in Lviv was determined by a number of features, including significant changes in the personal composion of their researchers. Some Polish and Ukrainian scientists, who have studied these disciplines, left the city. Instead, some Ukrainians, who had been living in the Ukrainian ethnic territories that have been transmitted to Poland after 1945, were repatriated to Lviv. Among these Ukrainians was a former teacher Ivan Zayats (1887–1968). He has graduated the Faculty of Philosophy of Lviv University (1913), where he had studied history and geography. During the interwar period (1920s – 1930s) he was a teacher in secondary schools in Peremyshl, participated in the cultural and educational life of the local Ukrainian community, was a co-organizer of The Ukrainian regional museum “Stryvigor”. Iv. Zayats has got a job at the Lviv State Republican Historical Museum in August 1946. At this museum he has worked as a researcher and chief custodian of its funds fifteen years. The museum was established by merging several Lviv museums and big local collections in May 1940. After that, this museum has become the owner of the largest collection of coins and medals in the city. Famous Polish museologist Rudolf Menkitskyj was the first who has carried out the work on their arrangement. The next who worked with coins and medals at the museum in 1944–1946 was Marjan Haisig, a former researcher at Lviv University. Iv. Zayats worked with numismatic collection of this museum at 1946–1961. He carried out an inventory, conservation and restoration of old and newly acquired materials, prepared indexes, selected some coins and medals for the museum exhibitions. He also started his scientific work in the field of numismatics at that time. In the 1950s the object of his scientific interests was the Lviv mint of the XIV–XV centuries. As the result of these studies he prepared an article in 1957. The article would have been to be published in the museum`s edition, which called “Reports and notices of the [Lviv State Historical] Museum”. This edition was never published due to a number of objective and subjective factors. Iv. Zayats’ article was not published either, although its content was known to some Lviv historians. We have find the typescript and pre-editions of this work (the text of Iv. Zayats’ article is given in the second part of our publication). The exploring of this article allows us to agree with the positive assessment of this scientific work, which was made by the former head of the Museum of Sphragistics and Numismatics of Lviv University Ivan-Julian Shpytkovskyj. It seems interesting Iv. Zayats’ attempt to consider the issue of issuance and circulation of coins of Lviv minting of the 14th – 15th centuries in the broader context of the changes that affected the Halycian-Volyn lands at this period. Also interesting his attempt to look at the status and relation of the Halychyna state to the Polish and Hungarian kingdoms through the prism of numismatics. Iv. Zayats, in particular, agreed with the opinion of some researchers who have spoken of a personal union between Halychyna and Poland during the reign of King Сasimir (Kazimierz) III and denied the fact of incorporation of Halychyna into Poland. He also wrote about the politically undefined status of Halychyna in relation to Poland and Hungary during the reign of Prince Wladyslaw of Opole and the next transformation this state into an ordinary Hungarian province during the subsequent reign of King Louis (Ludovic) of Hungary. According to Iv. Zayats’ article, the appearance of a Polish eagle on the coins minted in Lviv and the cessation of the issuance of a separate Rus coin in Lviv, was a sign of closer unification of Halychyna and Poland during the reign of King Wladyslaw II Jagiello. At the article listed the types of coins minted at this time in Lviv, presented their images and legends, draws a conclusion about the possible time of cessation of work the mint in the city. At the present time the scientific value of Iv. Zayats’ work reduced after research by Mykola Kotlyar, Stanislava Kubyak and Andriy Kryzhanivskyj. However, now it remains as an interesting monument of Ukrainian historiography of special (auxiliary) historical disciplines of the 1940s and 1950s.

About the Time of the Adoption of Islam by the Population of the Southern Ural

The object of the study is the adoption of Islam by the population of the Southern Ural. The subject of the study is the question of the time of the adoption of Islam in the territory of modern Bashkortostan – the largest region of the Southern Urals. The author examines in detail such aspects of the topic as the historiography of the issue, the spread of Islam among Bashkirs according to narrative sources – information from foreign travelers and Bashkir legends, archaeological sites with a Muslim funeral rite. In historiography, the question of the time of the adoption of Islam by Bashkirs has been repeatedly revised in the direction of antiquity. Narrative sources link the Islamization of Bashkirs with the activities of missionaries from Volga Bulgaria and the Golden Horde. In archeology, the spread of Islam on the territory of Bashkortostan is associated with the Chiyalik culture of the XII-XIV centuries. Special attention is paid to the funerary monuments of the nomadic population of steppe origin, dated XIII-XV centuries. Having settled in the land of Bashkirs, the nomads converted to Islam. A special contribution of the author to the study of the topic is a comparative analysis of the "pagan" and Muslim burials of the XIII-XV centuries, identified within the republic. A total of 84 burials were recorded. Of these, 31 burials were performed according to the "pagan" rite, dated XIII-XIV centuries., 53 burials were performed according to the Muslim rite, dated XIV-XV centuries. It is concluded that the archaeological data correspond to written sources reporting the adoption of Islam in Bashkiria in the XIV century. The novelty of the study lies in clarifying the dating of the three main stages of Islamization of the region's population. The penetration of Islam into the Bashkir environment occurs in the pre–Mongol period, the spread of Islam – in the Golden Horde period, the establishment of Islam - after the XV century. The process of Islamization ends with the disappearance of the burial burial rite and the transition to the modern Muslim funeral rite. Voluntary entry into Russia guaranteed Bashkirs freedom of religion.