X-ray Unit Research Articles

Correction of the Contribution of Scattered Photon Radiation to the Ionization Chamber ReadingsDuring X-Ray Radiation Quality Assessment

Reduction of the systematic error when determining the characteristics of the reference X-ray radiation fields is an essential task according to the ISO 4037-1:2019 standard. This task is especially important in dosimetry laboratories when establishing the qualities of reference photon fields. The aim of the study was to develop a method that allows taking into account the contribution of radiation scattered on the filter when determining the half-value layer of the photon field generated by the X-ray unit. Another goal was to reduce the computational cost of determining this contribution.One of the major contributors to the systematic error in measuring the half-value layer is the radiation scattered on the filter material. The standard recommends that this error should be taken into account in the measurement. But it does not provide any methodology that would do this.The study investigated the possibility of reducing the contribution of scattered radiation to the ionization chamber readings when assessing the radiation quality of the X-ray unit by the means of half-value layer. The study utilized the (N, H, L) quality series as reference fields according to ISO 4037-1:2019.Contribution of the scattered radiation to the half-value layer was compensated with the correction coefficients; they were calculated with the FLUKA Monte Carlo software according to the zero-aperture approximation method. Unlike other similar methods, the proposed approach employs kinetic energy released to matter (kerma), to air in this case, as the main value, which, when utilized instead of deposited energy, reduces the program’s runtime several fold.Correctness of the results obtained in this work was verified by comparing the calculated values of the half-value layer with the tabulated ones provided in the ISO 4037-1:2019 standard. The deviation of calculated values from those specified in the standard does not exceed 2 %.Calculation results showed that the error contributed by scattered radiation to the magnitude of the halfvalue layer in direct measurements does not exceed 5 %. The use of the air kerma allowed us to significantly reduce the time for calculating the correction coefficients by the factor of 6–16 times with respect to other methods, depending on the radiation quality series. This made it possible to calculate correction factors for the source-detector distance equal to 2.5 meters.

Cost-effective micro-CT system for non-destructive testing of titanium 3D printed medical components

Micro-CT imaging can be used as an effective method for non-destructive testing (NDT) of metal 3D printed parts-including titanium biomedical components fabricated using laser powder-bed-fusion (LPBF). Unfortunately, the cost of commercially available micro-CT scanners renders routine NDT for biomedical applications prohibitively expensive. This study describes the design, manufacturing, and implementation of a cost-effective scanner tailored for NDT of medium-size titanium 3D printed biomedical components. The main elements of the scanner; which include a low-energy (80 kVp) portable x-ray unit, and a low-cost lens-coupled detector; can be acquired with a budget less than $ 11000 USD. The low-cost detector system uses a rare-earth phosphor screen, lens-coupled to a dSLR camera (Nikon D800) in a front-lit tilted configuration. This strategy takes advantage of the improved light-sensitivity of modern full-frame CMOS camera sensors and minimizes source-to-detector distance to maximize x-ray flux. The imaging performance of the system is characterized using a comprehensive CT quality-assurance phantom, and two titanium 3D-printed test specimens. Results show that the cost-effective scanner can survey the porosity and cracks in titanium parts with thicknesses of up to 13 mm of solid metal. Quantitatively, the scanner produced geometrically stable reconstructions, with a voxel size of 118 μm, and noise levels under 55 HU. The cost-effective scanner was able to estimate the porosity of a 17 mm diameter titanium 3D-printed cylindrical lattice structure, with a 0.3% relative error. The proposed scanner will facilitate the implementation of titanium LPBF-printed components for biomedical applications by incorporating routine cost-effective NDT as part of the process control and validation steps of medical-device quality-management systems. By reducing the cost of the x-ray detector and shielding, the scan cost will be commensurate with the overall cost of the validated component.

Doses and spectra, of leaking-out and scattered photons from X-ray tubes used in dentistry

Diagnosis by X-ray image are procedures widely used to improve the diagnosis or to follow the evolution of a medical procedure, also are used to support the cancer treatment with linear accelerators. The procedure involves the X-ray unit and the detection system, while the X-ray beam is projected onto the patient; along this procedure X-rays are scattered out from the patient body and X-rays leak-out from the X-ray unit. Both, the scattered and the leaking out radiation, are important during the evaluation or the design of the shielding barriers. X-ray tube features like voltage, electric current, target and filter are related to the dose due to the scattered and leakage radiation. Also, the dose due to the scattered radiation depends upon the scattering angle; while the dose due to the leaking out radiation, depend upon the X-ray tube housing. The objective of this work was to estimate, using Monte Carlo methods, the X-ray spectra and doses (air Kerma and Ambient dose equivalent) produced by scattered and leaking out radiation of 70, 80 and 90 kV X-ray units.

Frequency Of Hysterosalpingography Findings In Females Presenting With Infertility In Gujrat

Background: Infertility is a gynecological illness which has clinical, financial and psychological consequences that affects 1.3% to 25.7% of couples throughout the world. Hysterosalpingography is a typical imaging technique used in gynecological practice to diagnose infertility in women. 
 Aim And Objective: The objective of our study was to evaluate the frequency of Hysterosalpingography findings in females presenting with infertility in Gujrat.
 Methodology: The prospective cross sectional study was carried out at X-Ray unit in Azeem Ultrasound & Digital X-Rays center, Gujrat, Pakistan. A total of 90 females patients with infertility were enrolled in present study. The duration of this research work was from February 2022 to May 2022. The data was gathered using a predesigned questionnaire form.. Statistical Package of Social Sciences was used to analyze the data. Frequency of different findings was found out. These were then graphically portrayed in the form of tables and graphs. 
 Results : We observed 90 female patients out of which 72 (80%) patients found to be normal. In 18 (20%) patients fallopian tube blockage was diagnosed. Out of 18 patients, 8 (8.9%) were having right sided fallopian tube blockage, 8(8.9%) were having bilateral tubal blockage while only 2 (2.2%) showed left sided tube block. Hydrosalpinx was found in 4(4.4%) patients and uterine anomaly in 2(2.2%) patients.
 Conclusion: Fallopian tube blockage and hydrosalpinx were common factors of infertility in our study. Hysterosalpingography provides an easy and affordable source for evaluation of infertility factors.

Radiography Of The Paranasal Sinus With Maxial Sinusitis In North Sumatra-Medan University Hospital

Paranasal sinus radiography is an appropriate method for showing abnormalities in the paranasal sinuses and showing abnormalities in suspected Maxillary Sinusitis. The purpose of this examination is to determine the location and location of sinusitis by obtaining an optimal picture with radiographic examination of the paranasal sinuses. This research was conducted at the Radiology Installation of the University of North Sumatra-Medan Hospital. Using a general X-ray unit with an aircraft capacity of 1100 mA in February 2022 - May 2022, with a qualitative descriptive research type. To show the anatomical description and pathological abnormalities in the paranasal sinuses, especially maxillary sinuses, parietoacanthia (water's method) and lateral projections are used. The results of the examination showed that there was Sinusitis Maxillaris Sinistra and a suspected Sinusitis Ethmoidalis Sinistra.

Knowledge and practice of radiation safety in the Catherization laboratory among Interventional Cardiologists – An online survey

An Online Survey among Interventional Cardiologists (IC) assessed the knowledge (five questions) and practice of radiation safety (eleven questions). Out of 185 respondents, knowledge of annual radiation dose (2% knew), LAO cranial view giving maximum radiation (48%) and benefit of assessment of radiation exposure with dose area product (31%) was limited. Radiation safety was practiced “whenever I remember” in 37–59%. Radiation safety practices were optimal frame rate selection (32%), distancing from x-ray unit (17%), collimation use (30%), positioning the image detector close to chest (91%) and personal dosimeters use (40%). A major gap exists between knowledge and practice of radiation safety.

Compliance to radiography practice of high-kilovoltage technique for chest radiography in South South Nigeria

BackgroundThe production of a good quality chest radiograph depends on the selection of appropriate kilovoltage and current–time product while keeping the radiation dose to patients as low as possible. This study assessed radiographers’ level of compliance to the use of high kV as standard for postero-anterior (PA) chest X-ray in the South South region of Nigeria.ResultsSeventy-seven of the 82 questionnaires administered were completely filled and returned giving a response rate of 94%. Of these 77 respondents, only 74% (n = 57) were aware of high-kV technique as the recommended procedure for PA chest X-ray. Departmental protocols (technique chart with exposure factors) were also non-existent in all hospitals/diagnostic centres used in this study. Thirty-one respondents were males (40%); 44% (n = 34) working in public hospitals only and 32% (n = 25) with less than five years of working experience were aware of this technique. On the benefits, more than 50% of the respondents were familiar with the benefits of using high-kV technique as the recommended standard for PA chest X-rays. Responses on the benefits of the technique varied from 77% (n = 59) for patient dose reduction to 51% (n = 39) for better imaging of the airways. The use of high-kV technique for PA chest X-rays showed only 13% compliance. Factors influencing compliance included imaging system (film screen /digital), X-ray tube rating and X-ray unit with preset/manual exposure factors (p < 0.05).ConclusionsThe present study revealed low compliance to high-kV technique in this region, suggesting a potential increase in ionizing radiation dose to patients during chest radiography, hence the need to improve adherence to the recommended standard.

Use of a PLA sleeve to remove electron enhancement in superficial X-ray therapy.

A newly installed superficial X-ray unit was found to produce enhanced electron dose at the skin surface. The ACPSEM kilovoltage dosimetry recommendations suggest using nail varnish within the treatment cones as a method to reduce this dose. In this study, a 3D PLA sleeve was produced and used as an alternative to the nail varnish for energies between 55 and 100kV. Further, plastic wrap was also investigated as an alternative method to reduce dose. It was found that a 1mm printed sleeve, inserted into the treatment cone sufficiently reduced the enhanced dose as measured with a thin-window Exradin chamber to within 3.3% of the dose measured with a Farmer-type ionisation chamber. The use of plastic wrap also reduced the enhanced dose, but impracticalities in its use make it non-viable for routine clinical use.

High-dynamic-range micro-CT for nondestructive testing of titanium 3D-printed medical components.

Purpose: Industrial microcomputed tomography (micro-CT) scanners are suitable for nondestructive testing (NDT) of metal, 3D-printed medical components. Typically, these scanners are equipped with high-energy sources that require heavy shielding and costly infrastructure to operate safely, making routine NDT of medical components prohibitively expensive. Alternatively, fixed-current, low-cost x-ray units could be implemented to perform CT-based NDT of 3D-printed medical parts in a subset of cases, if there is sufficient x-ray transmission for the CT reconstruction. A lack of signal-caused by areas of high attenuation in two-dimensional-projection images of metal objects-leads to artifacts that can make an image-based NDT unreliable. We present the implementation of a dual-exposure technique devised to extend the dynamic range (DR) of a commercially available CT scanner equipped with a low-cost low-energy (80kV) x-ray unit, increasing the signal-to-noise ratio of highly attenuated areas for NDT of 3D-printed medical components. Approach: Our high-dynamic-range CT (HDR-CT) technique adequately combines projection images acquired at two exposure levels by modifying the integration times of each protocol. We evaluate the performance and limitations of this HDR-CT technique by imaging a series of titanium-alloy test-samples. One of the test-samples was a resolution and conspicuity phantom designed to assess the improvements in void visualization of the proposed methodology. The other test-samples were four porous cylinders, , with 60%, 70%, 80%, and 90% nominal internal porosities. Results: Our HDR-CT technique adequately combines projection images acquired at two exposure levels by modifying the integration times of each protocol. Our results demonstrate that the 12-bit native DR of the CT scanner was increased to effective values of between 14 and 16 bits. Conclusions: The HDR-CT reconstructions showed improved contrast-to-noise and void conspicuity, when compared with conventional CT scans. This extension of DR has the potential to improve defect visualization during NDT of medium-size, titanium-alloy, 3D-printed medical components.

Safety of Ionizing Radiation in Selected Conventional X-ray Diagnostic Centres in Calabar and Uyo metropolises, Nigeria

Background: Humans are inevitably exposed to background radiation in work and public environments. The aim of this work is to assess the effectiveness of the secondary barriers in conventional x-ray diagnostic centers in Calabar and Uyo metropolises. This is by determining the weekly and annual effective dose in their respective uncontrolled areas and comparing them with the international recommendations. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted in three x-ray diagnostic centers in Calabar, represented as C1, C2, and C3 respectively, and in four xray diagnostic centers in Uyo, represented as U1, U2, U3, and U4 respectively. Background radiation was measured using Radex 1212 A-A battery-powered survey meter, at a distance of 2.5meters away from the xray units. Radiation measurement was taken at three different spots, and the recorded data were analyzed. Results: The mean calculated effective dose per week in mSv/week for each diagnostic center was given as 0.130 ± 0.0068mSv/week. Also, the mean calculated effective dose per year in mSv/year for each center was given as 0.66 ± 0.35mSv/year. These values are below the National Commission on Radiation Protection (NCRP) recommendations of 0.02mSv/week and 1mSv/year respectively. From the results, the mean calculated chance of developing cancer was 2.33 ×10-3% which was lower than the NCRP recommendation for continuous public exposure of 5.5×10-3 %. Conclusion: It could be concluded that the integrity of the shielding designs and their dimensions assessed are safe.

The Effects of Different Exposure Factors on Leakage Radiation in an X-ray Room

This study evaluated leakage radiation doses inside an x-ray room at patient’s positioning levels. The effects of different exposure settings (X-ray tube voltage, radiation exposure intensity, dosimeter position, and distance from X-ray tube) on leakage radiation dose are estimated. Various x-ray tubes and models were used in this evaluation. The findings of this study revealed that, the increase of tube voltage (kVp), and tube current (mAs) led to a concomitant increase in the quantity of leakage radiation, whereas the increase in distance from X-ray tube and dosimeter position reduces the intensity of recorded leakage radiation according to inverse square low. In addition, the evaluation of leakage X-ray for investigated X-ray units illustrated that, leakage radiation doses at patient level around X-ray tubes were within the permissible occupational dose. Finally, the reduction of leakage radiation dose can be acquired by reducing the intensity of radiation (mAs) and increasing the distance between imaged object and x-ray source.

Quality control test of fixed x-ray units at Bir hospital and National trauma center

One of the important goals of the use of X-rays is to diagnose a disease and its extent and minimizing the adverse effect. In diagnostic X-ray, there is an important issue concerning the quality of the image and the exposure of radiation to the patient. Regular practice of quality control in diagnostic X-ray is essential to provide good quality images, decrease hazard to patients, and enhance the appropriate diagnosis. Quality control tests were carried out at six fixed X-ray units at National Academy of Medical Sciences, Bir Hospital and National Trauma Center. Parameters like kVp accuracy, timer accuracy, Reproducibility of kV, time and dose, variable mA and radiation output Linearity with the acceptance limits were checked. Radiation leakage, spatial resolution, contrast resolution and field alignment tests were also carried out. Quality control tests of kVp dose, dose rate, HVL, mAs, beam alignment and leakage radiation shows mixed results. The measured values were within limit in four X-ray units. Until now we do not have any regulations in Nepal on acceptance testing of x-ray units after installation. The need for quality assurance of X-ray needs to be taken to avert detrimental effects to patients and staff. Institutes must introduce a mandatory system for acceptance tests of X-ray when installed and alongside regular quality control programs.

Evaluation of diagnostic x-ray equipment performance in lindi and mtwara regions - Tanzania

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the quality control (QC) tests results of general radiography x-ray equipment in order to assess the performance of the x-ray equipment in comparison to the acceptance limits, hence advise on measures to provide quality diagnostic imaging at optimized dose. QC tests results from health facilities in Mtwara and Lindi regions were evaluated. The QC results from 2015 to 2021 were analyzed for selected QC parameters which included kV accuracy, kV reproducibility, mAs linearity, beam quality, collimation and beam alignment. All x-ray units passed the kV accuracy, kV reproducibility, and beam quality and beam alignment tests. It was noticed that the collimation test surfaced among the failed parameters, though the performance of all the tested parameters were within 76.9 %. to 100% of the acceptable limits. Furthermore, lack of QC and maintenance plan was noted. Generally, the performance of most of the x-ray units were in compliance with regulatory requirements. However, improvement is desirable especially in the areas of QC plan, preventive maintenance and repair. Managers of the facilities need to take heed that optimum equipment performance is vital if quality imaging at optimized radiation dose is to be realized.

Radiological equipment and accessories as sources of nosocomial infection

Background: Nosocomial infections have become a major challenge in health institutions, as they affect the quality of health care delivered. The radiology department is one of the mainstays of modern medicine. It is therefore, necessary to assess its contamination by nosocomial organisms.Aim: The study aims at identifying the nosocomial bacteria associated with imaging equipment and accessories in Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital, Kano, Nigeria.Methods: The study design was prospective and cross-sectional in nature, and was conducted between Oct 2014 to Jan 2015 using disproportionate stratified random sampling method. Four different conventional x-ray units, fluoroscopy, computed tomography, angiography and ultrasound units were selected. Swabs were collected from the surfaces of the selected parts of the equipment and accessories after working hours in each unit. The swabs were taken to the microbiology laboratory for culturing and identification using standard laboratory procedure. A total of 200 cultured samples were used in the study. The collected data was analyzed using SPSS version 16.0 software.Results: Bacteria were isolated in 43.5 % (n = 87) of all the swab samples with ultrasound transducer as major culture. Specific bacteria isolated were: Staphylococcus aureus (n = 65; 74.7 %), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (n = 14; 16.1 %), Bacillus spp (n = 6; 6.9 %), Klebsiella spp (n = 1; 1.1 %) and Proteus spp (n = 1; 1.1 %). Methylated spirit was the most effective chemical disinfectant. Conclusion: Radiology equipment and accessories in Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital are not entirely free of bacteria. Meticulous attention to disinfection will safeguard staff and other patients from nosocomial infections.

Spectra, ΓH*(10) and ΓKa produced by X-ray tubes, with Mo and Rh targets, in the diagnostic energy range

Voltage, current, target and filter in X-ray tubes define the X-ray spectrum; in turn, any dosimetric quantity depends on the spectrum. In the operation of an X-ray generator the dose is evaluated considering the contribution of leakage, scattered and direct beam contribution. For one X-ray unit using a voltage is important to know dose to 1 m per unit current (mA) and time (min); this feature is the Gamma factor (Γ). Using analog Monte Carlo methods, using the MCNP5 code, the objective of this work was to calculate the X-ray spectra and the Gamma factors for the ambient dose equivalent and air Kerma for X-units with two targets: Molybdenum and Rhodium and Aluminum filter. The X-rays are in the diagnostic energy range (70, 80, 90, 100, and 120 kV). Calculations were carried out in four positions (a, b, c and d) along the useful beam, and to account the radiation leakage calculations include two positions (L1 and L2) around the shielding. The spectra average energy and the Gamma factors for air Kerma and ambient dose equivalent were calculated. Low energy photons are eliminated by the glass enclosure and the filter. To 1 m from the focal spot (positions d, L1 and L2) the larger photon fluence and the Gamma factors for air Kerma and ambient dose equivalent are larger when the target in the tube is Rh in comparison to those having a target of Mo. In position d all Γ factors are described by a third degree polynomial.

Development of an algorithm to convert mammographic images to appear as if acquired with different technique factors.

Purpose: We set out a fully developed algorithm for adapting mammography images to appear as if acquired using different technique factors by changing the signal and noise within the images. The algorithm accounts for difference between the absorption by the object being imaged and the imaging system. Approach: Images were acquired using a Hologic Selenia Dimensions x-ray unit for the validation, of three thicknesses of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) blocks with or without different thicknesses of PMMA contrast objects acquired for a range of technique factors. One set of images was then adapted to appear the same as a target image acquired with a higher or lower tube voltage and/or a different anode/filter combination. The average linearized pixel value, normalized noise power spectra (NNPS), and standard deviation of the flat field images and the contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) of the contrast object images were calculated for the simulated and target images. A simulation study tested the algorithm on images created using a voxel breast phantom at different technique factors and the images compared using local signal level, variance, and power spectra. Results: The average pixel value, NNPS, and standard deviation for the simulated and target images were found to be within 9%. The CNRs of the simulated and target images were found to be within 5% of each other. The differences between the target and simulated images of the voxel phantom were similar to those of the natural variability. Conclusions: We demonstrated that images can be successfully adapted to appear as if acquired using different technique factors. Using this conversion algorithm, it may be possible to examine the effect of tube voltage and anode/filter combination on cancer detection using clinical images.

Occupational risks among radiation workers at hospitals in AL-Muthanna governorate, Iraq

Cross-sectional study was conducted among participant in All radiation units in hospitals in AL-Muthana Governorate were taken into this study done by face-to-face interviews with 95 participants from radiological units to find out occupational risk for radiation workers and to identify the extent of the obligations of radiation workers in hospital in terms of wearing personal protective equipment. Total respondent was 95, Their mean age was 37 years, 70.5% of the were males, one third of them were radiographers work in the x-ray units, most of them were married, 41.1% hold a diploma certificate. The study found that 89% of staff answer known about availability of PPI (lead coat) while only 45.4% use of them when dialing with radiation on the other hand 50.9-92% of staff answer about unavailability of other PPI such as theroid shield, genital shield, and lead glasses). only 63.2% of the staff have training course about occupational health and safety. With all questions statical significant at P. value &lt;0.05.

Local diagnostic reference levels and effective doses: single institution levels for interventional cardiology procedures for adult patients

Abstract Introduction: The current regulations in Poland in the field of interventional radiology only include diagnostic reference levels (DRL) for five procedures, containing only two for cardiological (hemodynamic) procedures, and only for adults. Given the insufficient number of DRLs, the need to introduce local levels based on the intervention procedures performed was identified. The purpose of this research was the evaluation of radiation doses (DRL, effective dose) received by patients in cardiological interventional procedures. Material and methods: The DRL level was defined as the 75th percentile of the distribution of dosimetric parameters KAP and Kair,ref for each type of cardiological procedure. Data include three different X-ray units and 27 interventional cardiologists, derived from February 2019 to June 2019 and from August 2021 to December 2021. In order to estimate the effective dose, the appropriate conversion factors for cardiological procedures were used. The total number of analyzed procedures was 3818. Results: The proposed local DRL levels were found to be mostly lower than data found in literature and in the current Polish national requirements (60%-70% lower for coronary angiography (CA) and percutaneous coronary angioplasty (PCI) procedures). Median equivalent doses for cardiological procedures were estimated at 2.66 mSv, 6.11 mSv and 7.22 mSv for CA, PCI and combined PCI with CA procedure, respectively. Conclusions: The proposed local/institutional DRLs seem to be suitable for use and could be utilized by other centers for comparison purposes.

X-ray tube operators can be exposed to equal or higher scattered radiation doses to the hand as cassette holders during diagnostic radiographic procedures of the equine vertebral column and limbs.

The objectives of this study were to investigate scattered radiation doses to the hands of equine workers holding the cassette and the x-ray tube by hand, for both limb and vertebral column studies, and to compare the scattered radiation attenuation of lead with radiation protection lead-free gloves. Radiation doses to the hands of the cassette holder in the primary beam were also investigated. A whole-body horse cadaver. A portable x-ray unit was used to simulate 6 radiographic study types in the horse cadaver. Doses were measured with no shielding and, for cassette holders, with the ion chamber enclosed in a lead glove and a lead-free glove. Thirty exposures were performed for each study view and condition (n = 1,920). Mean scattered doses to x-ray unit operators were higher than doses to cassette holders for ungula (hoof), thoracic vertebrae, and lumbar vertebrae studies, whereas doses to cassette holders were higher than doses to x-ray tube operators for studies of the metacarpophalangeal joint (fetlock) and tarsus (hock). Doses did not differ for the stifle joint. Mean percentage decrease in scattered radiation dose was 99.58% with lead gloves and 98.9% with lead-free gloves. X-ray tube operators can be exposed to equal or higher scattered radiation doses to the hand as cassette holders. Lead-free hand shielding should only be considered as an alternative to lead gloves if their lighter weight increases frequency of use by workers.

Evaluation of radiation doses delivered to patients during conventional pelvis radiographic imaging in selected Nigerian hospitals

Diagnostic X-ray procedures remain the largest contributor to the population dose from man-made radiation sources; therefore, there is need for evaluation of the health risks connected with the use of ionizing radiation in X-ray examinations. The aim of this study is to investigate radiation dose in pelvis imaging procedures in some diagnostic centers in Southern part of Nigeria. Entrance Surface Air Kerma (ESAK) was calculated using exposure parameters obtained during examinations. A total of 160 adult patients undergoing pelvis AP radiography in nine (9) hospitals having ten X-ray centers were considered in the study. The mean ESAK calculated ranged from 1.08 to 16.16 mGy for pelvis AP and ranged from 1.15 to 10.06 mGy for pelvis LAT. Wide variations were found in the dose values obtained from various X-ray units even within the same center. The doses estimated in this study were found to be lower, when compared with the NRPB-HPA 2010 review for UK.