X-ray Diagnostics Research Articles

New capabilities of the incoherent Thomson scattering diagnostics in the TCV tokamak: divertor and real-time measurements

This work reports developments of the incoherent TS diagnostic capabilities in the Tokamak à Configuration Variable (TCV). Their goals are to (i) diagnose the TCV divertor region, and (ii) provide Te and ne profiles of the plasma bulk in real-time. These two new TS diagnostic capabilities are implemented within the framework of a TCV upgrade that will insert baffles in the lower divertor region. 20 new TS spectrometers are being installed to access electron temperatures down to ~1 eV, for densities above ~1.5×1019m−3 within the TCV divertor region. They will measure the Thomson light scattered along the vertical propagation path of the three legacy Nd:YAG lasers. The light at each of the 20 measurement plasma volumes is collected by three optical fibers with a laser-mapped spatial resolution of 5-6 mm each, providing a vertical spatial resolution of 15-18mm. Interference filters with central. Interference filters with central wavelengths from 1025 to 1061 nm and widths as low as ~2 nm are employed to obtain the spectroscopic resolution required at these low temperatures. The acquisition chain and analysis of the TS signal will be integrated into the TCV monitoring and control system to provide electron density and temperature profiles in real-time, at a sampling rate up to 60 Hz. The real time electron property profiles complement existing systems provided by the far-infrared interferometer and the soft X-ray diagnostics. The latter are restricted to provide integrated values of the electron density and temperature respectively, but at higher sampling rates (10 kHz and 20 kHz respectively). The whole diagnostic ensemble will be integrated into TCV's control system to improve the accuracy and robustness of real-time plasma profile and equilibrium estimation for control purposes.

Role of an anesthesiologist in pediatric X-ray diagnostics

Purpose: analysis of modern data devoted to the issue of stress-free and safe magnetic resonance imaging in children using both non-drug methods and different agents for anesthesia along with their delivery systems.Discussion. It is difficult to complete MRI in younger children due to some reasons and possible development of stress. The technique often requires the presence of an anesthesiologist, especially if patients present with neurological pathology. The article describes how to deal with this problem to ensure safety and comfort during the procedure at the X-ray diagnostic department.Conclusions: a broad spectrum of non-drug methods is available and successfully used today. Different types of sedation and anesthesia ensure safety and comfort of a patient who undergoes an examination at the X-ray diagnostic department.

Перипротезная инфекция у пациентов с нестабильностью эндопротеза коленного сустава (Periprostheticknee Infection in Patients With Endoprostheses Instability)

Russian Abstract: Цель: на основе изучения результатов собственных клинических наблюдений провести оценку клинико-лабораторных показателей глубокой перипротезной инфекции у пациентов с нестабильностью эндопротеза коленного сустава. Материалы и методы: 80 пациентов с септической и асептической нестабильностью эндопротеза коленного сустава, проходивших лечение в НИИТОН СГМУ. Пациентам было проведено комплексное клинико-лабораторное исследование (цитологическое, микробиологическое исследования внутрисуставной жидкости, гистологическое исследование тканей сустава, методом твердофазного иммуноферментного анализа определяли уровни маркеров ремоделирования скелетной ткани, лучевая диагностика). Результаты: По результатам анализа полученных данных выявлено, что при наличии явных клинических признаков глубокой ППИ коленного сустава, лабораторное подтверждение ее наличия получено у 23 больных из 36 (63,9%). Подозрение на ППИ подтвердилось в 6 случаях (40%). При этом у 10 пациентов (34,5%) с асептической нестабильностью выявлены возбудители перипротезной инфекции в суставной жидкости и околосуставных тканях. Выводы: Дифференциальная диагностика между асептической нестабильностью эндопротеза и глубокой ППИ с субклиническим или бессимптомным течением является перспективным направлением современной медицины и требует мультидисциплинарного подхода. English Abstract: Objective: to make assessment of clinical and laboratory parameters for deep periprosthetic infection in patients with instable knee endoprosthesesrevising clinical observations made in the institute. Materials and methods: 80 patients with both septic and aseptic instabilities of knee endoprostheses who underwent treatment in Scientific Research Institute of Traumatology, Orthopedics and Neurosurgery of Saratov State Medical University n.a. V. I. Razumovsky. All patients were subjected to comprehensive clinical and laboratory examination (intra-articular fluid cytology and microbiology testing, joint tissues histology testing, ELISA was employed for determining the levels of skeletal tissue remodeling markers, X-ray diagnostics). Results.The analysis of the obtained data revealed that in the presence of obvious clinical evidences of deep knee PJI it had been laboratory confirmed in 23 of 36 (63.9 %) patients. Suspicion for PJI was confirmed in 6 cases (40%). At that the periprosthetic infectious pathogens in the joint fluid and periarticular tissues were found in 10 patients (34.5 %) with aseptic instability. Conclusion. Differential diagnosis between aseptic endoprosthesis instability and deep subclinical or asymptomatic PJI is a promising trend of modern medicine requiring multidisciplinary approach.

Making inertial confinement fusion models more predictive

Computer models of inertial confinement fusion (ICF) implosions play an essential role in experimental design and interpretation as well as our understanding of fundamental physics under the most extreme conditions that can be reached in the laboratory. Building truly predictive models is a significant challenge, with the potential to greatly accelerate progress to high yield and ignition. One path to more predictive models is to use experimental data to update the underlying physics in a way that can be extrapolated to new experiments and regimes. We describe a statistical framework for the calibration of ICF simulations using data collected at the National Ignition Facility (NIF). We perform Bayesian inferences for a series of laser shots using an approach that is designed to respect the physics simulation as much as possible and then build a second model that links the individual-shot inferences together. We show that this approach is able to match multiple X-ray and neutron diagnostics for a whole series of NIF “BigFoot” shots. Within the context of 2D radiation hydrodynamic simulations, our inference strongly favors a significant reduction in fuel compression over other known degradation mechanisms (namely, hohlraum issues and engineering perturbations). This analysis is expanded using a multifidelity technique to pick fuel-ablator mix from several candidate causes of the degraded fuel compression (including X-ray preheat and shock timing errors). Finally, we use our globally calibrated model to investigate the extra laser drive energy that would be required to overcome the inferred fuel compression issues in NIF BigFoot implosions.

Current Profile Reconstruction Using Motional Stark Effect Polarimeter Data on HL-2A Tokamak

In order to reconstruct the plasma current density, the Current Profile Fitting (CPF) code has been successfully developed on the HL-2A tokamak. A seven-channel motional Stark effect (MSE) diagnostic based on dual photoelastic modulators is installed to measure the pitch angle of the magnetic field, which can be used as an internal magnetic field constraint for the CPF code. Recently, the MSE polarimeter was upgraded with a real-time wavelength matching system to improve the signal-to-noise ratio. The magnetic field angle (γpitch) with a temporal resolution of 10 ms can be provided. In the CPF code, the plasma current density is described as a polynomial, and the Least-Squares method is used to determine the coefficients of the polynomial. The Finite Difference method and the Strongly Implicit Procedure method are used to solve the Grad-Shafranov equation. The code operation is stable. With the improved-quality MSE data, the CPF calculation result of shot 30782 suggests that the safety factor q profile is monotonic. The minimum q value is less than 1 on-axis during sawtooth oscillations in shot 30782. And, the position of the q = 1 surface is consistent with the sawtooth inversion radius measured by electron cyclotron emission and soft X-ray diagnostics.

Effectiveness of Al2O3:C OSL dosimeter towards entrance surface dose measurement in common X-ray diagnostics

We report the successful use of nanoDots Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dosimeters (OSLDs) for the determination of the entrance surface dose (ESD) in common X-ray diagnostics. ESD evaluation is made on six radiographic projections including abdomen (AP and LAT), chest (AP and PA), skull (AP), and thoracic spine (AP). Indirect and direct ESD measurements have been performed with and without whole-body anthropomorphic phantom using GE radiography system installed at the Diagnostic Imaging Laboratory, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), wherein the International Atomic Energy Agency protocol (IAEA TRS-457) has been followed. The CALDose_X 5.0 software is used to calculate ESDs in these projections. The mean ESDs obtained with indirect measurements for AP abdomen, LAT abdomen, AP chest, PA chest, AP thoracic spine, and AP skull projections are 4.8, 8.3, 0.7, 0.2, 7.2, and 3.7 mGy respectively, and with direct measurements, the respective mean ESDs are 4.3, 8.3, 0.7, 0.3, 6.8, and 2.8 mGy. The values obtained by CALDose_X calculations are 8.3, NA, 1.1, 0.7, 8.8, and 4.5 mGy, respectively. Significant variations ranging from 18% to 59% are observed between measured and calculated ESDs, which are attributed to the difference in phantom size and field size. The overall uncertainty for direct measurements has a maximum of ±0.86 mGy compared to ±0.47 mGy for indirect measurement. Measured ESDs are within the IAEA and European Commission (EC) DRLs range, while calculated ESDs are slightly above the measured values. It is concluded that the use of nanoDots OSLD is beneficial for ESD measurement in routine X-ray examinations.

Pushered single shell implosions for mix and radiation trapping studies using high-Z layers on National Ignition Facility

Pushered Single Shells (PSSs) are an alternative approach to Inertial Confinement Fusion implosions that employ high-Z materials in the innermost capsule layer (pusher) as a means to enhance radiation trapping and lower core ignition requirements. However, adding high-Z materials can also increase losses due to mix, provide extra tamping, and make the capsule emission opaque to x-ray diagnostics. The first PSS implosions performed on the National Ignition Facility use plastic ablators with a germanium (Ge) dopant as a high-Z surrogate in the pusher to isolate the effects of high-Z mix and radiation trapping without changing tamping. Using a 2-shock laser pulse, the PSS implosions are designed and symmetrized to reach 3.7 keV core temperatures. A low concentration (2.8%) Ge dopant is added to the innermost layer, and the resulting effects on mix and x-ray opacity are observed. The method of separated reactants is used to infer information about mixing between the deuterated plastic pusher and the capsule fill gas (25% tritium) from the resulting nuclear DT reactions. Radiation transport is studied via capsule emission x-ray spectroscopy and imaging. Both nuclear and x-ray data corroborate the hypothesis that the addition of Ge strongly affects the mix region through radiation losses but has a minimal effect on the core and the warm, unmixed regions. Simulations using diffusive and turbulent mix models agree qualitatively with data, but quantitative agreement may require hybrid mix models that can model the transitional regime between turbulence and diffusion. Simulations matching the observables show increased core radiation trapping when Ge is added.

Direct and indirect entrance surface dose measurement in X-ray diagnostics using nanoDot OSL dosimeters

This study investigated the suitability of nanoDot optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dosimeters for entrance surface dose (ESD) measurements in common X-ray diagnostics. OSL dosimetry system supplied by Landauer Inc, (Glenwood, IL, USA) consisting of nanoDot OSL dosimeters and microStar reader were used. ESDs were measured with nanoDots placed on whole-body anthropomorphic phantom (for direct measurements) and in free air without backscatter material (for indirect measurements) in accordance with the IAEA Technical Report Series No. 457. Measurements were carried out in five X-ray projections including AP abdomen, AP chest, PA chest, AP thoracic spine and AP skull. The mean ESD for each projection was evaluated from multiple measurements with three different field sizes. Mean ESDs (direct measurements) for AP abdomen, AP chest, PA chest, AP thoracic spine and AP skull were 4.3 mGy, 0.7 mGy, 0.3 mGy, 6.8 mGy and 2.8 mGy respectively. While in the case of indirect measurements, the corresponding mean ESD values were 4.8 mGy, 0.7 mGy, 0.2 mGy, 7.2 mGy and 3.7 mGy respectively. The results were found to be within IAEA and European Commission (EC) diagnostic reference levels (DRLs) range. The percentage difference of the ESDs measured by direct and indirect methods in all projections were between 0 to 40%. It was affirmed that nanoDot OSL dosimeter is a good candidate for ESD measurement in common radiographic examinations, while taking into account the effect of energy dependence.

Rare Forms of Intestinal Obstruction in Children

The article analyzes two rare cases of acquired intestinal obstruction in children. In the first child at the age of 2 years, who suffered a retrosternal total coloesophagoplasty for extended post-burn chemical esophageal stenosis, early postoperative adhesive intestinal obstruction appeared on the 8th day of the postoperative period, which was eliminated laparoscopically. The next day, against the background of drug stimulation of the intestine, a small intestinal invagination developed, diagnosed with ultrasound examination. Relaparotomy and disinvagination were performed.The second patient, the 15 years old girl, who had suffered from closed abdominal injury and a pancreatic injury, manifested the signs of high partial intestinal obstruction a day after the trauma occurred. Initially, its cause was considered to be hematoma of the omental bursa. Fibrogastroduodenoscopy (FGDS) and X-ray diagnostics did not reveal the cause of intestinal obstruction, but after FGDS procedure the patient’s condition improved within 3–4 days, and then the clinical signs of small bowel obstructive adhesion confirmed by X-ray and laparoscopy. With laparoscopy in the middle section of the small intestine, a hyperinflate “whitish” section about 12 cm long, dense in palpation, was identified, which was the cause of obstruction. Through minilaparotomic umbilical access from the abdominal cavity, a loop of the jejunum with a foreign body inside was exteriorized. With transverse enterotomy trihobezoar 10×4×4 cm was removed from the lumen, which moved from the stomach and led to obstruction of small intestine. The outcome of the treatment was good in both cases.

X-Ray Diagnostics of Microstructure Defects of Silicon Crystals Irradiated by Hydrogen Ions

Features of formation and transformation of radiation defects in near-surface layers of silicon plates that are implanted with hydrogen ions are studied. Using the method of high-resolution double-crystal X-ray diffractometry, values of the main parameters, such as mean effective thickness Leff and mean relative deformation Δa/a of a doped layer, are determined depending on the implantation dose and substrate temperature.

FEATURES OF THE DIAGNOSIS OF UNCOMPLICATED COMPRESSION FRACTURE OF THE THORACIC SPINE IN CHILDREN

X-ray diagnostics of compression fractures of bodies of the thoracic vertebrae in children not seldom causes great difficulties due to the fact that even in healthy children vertebrae have a number of features, particularly, the wedge shape. For the purpose of differential diagnosis there was performed chest X-ray examination of the thoracic vertebrae in healthy children and cases after the compression damage. The wedge index and the disk coefficient for various segments of the thoracic spine were calculated. The diagnostic efficiency of radionuclide studies was estimated to reaches 79%. The useof highly informative modern medical techniques (CT and MRI) in the diagnosis of vertebral compression fractures in children allows accurately and timely make the diagnosis and determine the condition of the surrounding tissues. Based on the analysis of medical records, radiographs, identification of options of radionuclide, CT and MRI studies, there was elaborated an algorithm for the diagnosis of compression fractures of vertebrae, which allowed optimize the diagnostic process. There are determined advantages of this algorithm.

Evaluation of the dose reduction capabilities in digital radiography of the chest using contrast-detail phantom

Assessment of the quality of the images obtained using optimized (low-dose) protocols is the inherent part of the optimization in X-ray diagnostics. To perform the objective quantitative image quality assessment one can use dedicated test-objects, including several components for the simultaneous measurement of the different physical image characteristics (contrast and spatial resolution). The use of such test objects allows estimating and assessing the relations between the patient dose, parameter of the X-ray examination and image quality. That is especially important for the optimization of the digital radiographic examinations performed with automated exposure control. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the possibilities of the patient dose reduction using “contrast-detail” test-object for the digital radiography of the chest in posterior-anterior projection performed with automated exposure control. The study was performed in St-Petersburg Mariinsky hospital on a digital X-ray unit “ARC-Electron” with a flat-panel detector. The combination of a test-object and a tissue-equivalent phantom were imaged on a range of chest X-ray protocols: on a 60–150 kV tube voltage range with automated exposure control; and using fixed 90 kV tube voltage on a range of 2–100 mAs tube current-exposure time product. Dose-area product (cGy×cm2) was measured for each exposure; effective dose (mSv) was estimated for each exposure based on dose-area product. A dedicated software was developed for the automated image quality assessment. The results of the study indicate that the use of a high tube voltage (140–150 kV) with current automated exposure control settings would lead to 60% and 95% reduction of the dose-area product and effective dose, respectively, compared to the standard protocol. The adjustment of the current automated exposure control settings with the reduction of the tube current-exposure time product from 11,2 mAs to the 4,2 mAs for the tube voltage of 90 kV would lead to the reduction of both the dose-area product and effective dose up to a factor of three, compared to the standard protocol. For both scenarios image quality characteristics decreased by less than 15%. The proposed low-dose protocols are under the clinical approbation at Mariinsky hospital. The proposed method of image quality assessment and development of low-dose protocols is recommended for inclusion in the quality assurance program for the radiography examinations.

Modern principles of the radiation protection from sources of ionizing radiation in medicine. Part 1: Trends, structure of x-ray diagnostics and doses from medical exposure

Implementation of modern highly informative methods of X-ray diagnostics (computed tomography, interventional examinations, nuclear medicine), associated with the increase of doses to the public and patients, requires the development and improvement of the existing system of the radiation protection from medical exposure. Despite the prevalence of the traditional imaging modalities in the structure of X-ray diagnostics in the Russian Federation (radiography and fluorography compose up to 95% out of 280 mln. X-ray examinations performed in 2017), the major contribution into the collective dose from medical exposure is due to the computed tomography (50,5%). Comparison of the structure of X-ray diagnostics in the Russian Federation with European Union indicates the absence of fluorography examinations and significantly (up to a factor of 5) higher contribution of computed tomography in European countries. An average collective dose from medical exposure in European countries is composed of 80% of computed tomography and of 10% of nuclear medicine; a mean effective dose per X-ray examination are higher up to a factor of 3 compared to Russia. The analysis of the trends of the development of the X-ray diagnostic in the Russian Federation allows predicting a further increase of the number of computer tomography, interventional and nuclear medicine examinations as well as an increase of the collective dose from medical exposure up to a factor of two in the next decade. This will be associated with changes in the structure of the X-ray diagnostics and an increase of the mean effective doses from X-ray examinations.

In vitro validation of near-infrared transillumination at 780nm for the detection of caries on proximal surfaces.

The aim of the present in vitro study was to determine the ability of Diagnocam to detect caries at an early stage and to compare it with digital radiography. One hundred twenty proximal surfaces composed equally of sound and decayed surfaces were evaluated by assessing images captured with Diagnocam (Kavo, Biberach, Germany) and digital radiography (DR). All images were assessed twice by two calibrated dentists with a minimum interval of 2weeks between examinations. The results were compared with μCT scans. Inter-rater reliability showed nearly perfect agreement; a high intra-rater reliability was calculated. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients showed a strong correlation of Diagnocam and μCT (0.82). DR and μCT achieved a slightly lower correlation (0.73). The surfaces were categorized into sound surfaces, enamel lesions, and dentin lesions to determine intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs), sensitivity and specificity. ICCs between μCT and DR ranged from 0.20 to 0.63. ICCs between Diagnocam and DR were higher in all categories and ranged from 0.56 to 0.83. Sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of Diagnocam achieved mostly higher values than DR. In detecting enamel lesions, sensitivity was 0.36 for DR and 0.59 for the DC. The areas under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves of Diagnocam were larger than those of DR in all categories. Diagnocam is more capable of detecting initial proximal lesions than DR and also has a higher sensitivity for dentin lesions. However, caries progression in dentin cannot be reliably determined with Diagnocam. Diagnocam may be suitable as a supplement to X-ray diagnostics in clinical use.

Stable current sheath dynamics caused by preionization source in a small plasma focus device using He as an operating gas

ABSTRACTPinching of the current sheath in the plasma focus (PF) device is an important phase to transfer the stored energy to the high density short lived plasma for the production of a group of useful radiations. The current sheath formation during the initial breakdown of the gas is a critical process in the PF operation. In this regard, the understanding of the current sheath dynamics is of prime importance. In this paper, we present the effects of alpha particle induced preionizaion by U238 in 3.3 kJ He operated PF device on the dynamics of current sheath, focus amplitude and axial rundown velocity by employing Rogowski coil and High voltage probe as main diagnostic tools. The formation of parabolic axisymmetric sheath is confirmed by Rogowski coil and high voltage probe signals which also reveals the variation in focusing time as well as amplitude during collapse phase by using the preionization source. Time resolved X-ray diagnostics are also carried out using PIN diodes covered with Al and Mg filters of 12.5 and 25 µm which provide an important information about an early onset of X-ray generation. Time integrated X-ray imaging is also carried out to estimate X-ray production zone in the PF device indicating enlarged and symmetric images with preionization.

Investigation of wire-array Z-pinches by laser probing diagnostics

Laser diagnostics provides powerful tools for the investigation of dense Z-pinches. In this paper, wire-array Z-pinches are investigated at the 1 MA Zebra generator using laser diagnostics at different wavelengths coupled with x-ray diagnostics. Plasma dynamics during the ablation, implosion, and stagnation stages are observed by multiframe diagnostics. Cascading and nonprecursor implosions are studied in wire arrays. Ultraviolet diagnostics allows deep penetration into the Z-pinch plasma at stagnation. End-on probing reveals the complicated structure of the precursor. Strong magnetohydrodynamic instabilities are found in a dense pinch hidden in the trailing plasma. Small-scale instabilities are seen in the Z-pinch plasma with micrometer resolution. Probing of the pinch from four directions shows asymmetrical trailing plasma in some configurations of wire arrays. Faraday rotation diagnostics reveals the magnetic fields and the current distribution in the plasma of the precursor and Z-pinch. Redistribution of current in the trailing plasma is seen during kink and sausage instabilities in the stagnation stage. The formation of micropinches and hot spots in the Z-pinch is analyzed with coupled laser and x-ray diagnostics. Different laser diagnostics allow the study of Z-pinch plasmas in all stages, including fast dynamics and instabilities.

Experimental examination of a method to estimate temporal effect by neutrons and γ-rays on scintillation light in scintillator-based soft x-ray diagnostic of experimental advanced superconducting tokamak and large helical device.

Scintillators, which are more tolerant of neutrons or γ-rays than semiconductors, are a promising candidate for soft X-ray (SX) diagnostics in high neutron flux environments such as JT-60SA or ITER. Although scintillators are tolerant of radiations, neutrons and γ-rays can cause scintillation light and become noise on SX signals. Therefore, a method to estimate the temporal effect by the radiations on SX signals and an appropriate design of the radiation shield based on the estimation are required. In previous studies, it has been proposed for estimating the effect by the radiations to calculate the absorption powers due to SXs, neutrons, and γ-rays in scintillators assuming that amplitudes of scintillation light are proportional to the absorption powers. In this study, an experimental examination of this proposal is conducted in the Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST). It is shown that the proposal may be valid in the examination of EAST. In addition to results in EAST, initial results of a multi-channel scintillator-based SX diagnostic in the Large Helical Device (LHD) are introduced. Although a scintillator-based SX diagnostic in LHD observes oscillations of SXs by magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) phenomena successfully, the observed temporal effect on SX signals by neutrons or γ-rays is more significant than the expected effect, which is estimated by calculating the absorption powers. One of the possible reasons for the contradiction between the results in EAST and LHD is unexpected γ-rays around the scintillators in LHD. Although the temporal effect by the radiations is significant in the current system of LHD, the degradation of amplitudes of SX signals after the deuterium plasma experiments is not observed with the current level of the fluence. The scintillator-based SX diagnostic in LHD may work as a diagnostic to research MHD instabilities in deuterium plasma experiments without additional maintenance during an experimental campaign by making the pinhole larger or setting an additional radiation shield.

Лучевая диагностика заболеваний зубочелюстной системы у детей и подростков

Лучевая диагностика заболеваний зубочелюстной системы у детей и подростков

Особенности диагностики изолированных аномалий среднего уха

In this article, we present the role of 3D CT modeling in the assessment of diagnostics and surgical treatment of isolated middle ear anomalies. Three-dimensional visualization of the middle ear facilitates the understanding of the patient’s anatomy. To demonstrate the advantages of combining both approaches, we performed computed tomography (CT) in two normal patients and 40 different anomalies of the middle ear, and the 3D-models were correlated with CT scan cross sections. Reconstructed CT data sets were obtained using a multispiral CT. In all cases, the authors used the software RadiAnt DICOM Viewer and Vidar Dicom Viewer to create 3D-models of the middle ear. Such tools are used to review and analyze DICOM-PACS medical images. Three-dimensional models of individual anatomical structures were displayed in various colors. This approach may be clinically applicable to obtain a three-dimensional understanding of the patient’s anatomy using the models as a reference because creating three-dimensional models can be extremely time-consuming. Moreover, it can help radiologists and otolaryngologists to evaluate 2D-slices by adding correct 3D-information that otherwise would need mental integration. The method may be applied for X-Ray diagnostics, surgical planning and, especially, for training.

Characterization of ECR plasma by means of radial and axial X-ray diagnostics

This work presents the X -ray characterization of the plasma generated in a simple mirror axis symmetric trap as a function of the magnetic field profile. A Si-Pin detector has been used to characterize warm electron population in axial and radial directions at 6.83 GHz. Moreover, the hot electrons emitted in axial direction has been measured by means of a HyperPure Germanium (HpGe) detector. Results show that X-ray emission is not homogenous, and its homogeneity and temperature depend strongly on the magnetic field profile, and especially on the Bmin/BECR ratio.