World Trade Organization Research Articles

Bibliometric Analysis and Review of World Trade Organization Research: Suggesting Future Avenues using WOS Database

Bibliometric Analysis and Review of World Trade Organization Research: Suggesting Future Avenues using WOS Database

The Rise and Decline of the Liberal World Order and the Multilateral Trade System: A Critical-Constructivist Synthesis to International Regime Analysis

This article devises an analytical framework that synthesizes neo-Gramscian and social constructivist perspectives to dissect international regimes amid global hegemonic shifts. It portrays regimes as intersubjective constructs with unique social purposes within the broader hegemonic fabric, shaped by dominant ideologies and power distributions. The study examines the transition of the trade regime from General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) to World Trade Organization (WTO) through the Uruguay Round (1986-1994) and the Doha Round’s deadlock since 2001. The article posits that the Uruguay Round marked a pivotal hegemonic transformation, transitioning the regime from embedded liberalism to neoliberalism by transforming its social purpose, norms, and generative grammar. Yet, this shift, which precipitated a legitimacy crisis within the WTO and was exacerbated by the Doha Round’s failure to regenerate neoliberal hegemony with a fresh synthesis of free trade and sustainable development, arguably rendered the WTO directionless and contributed to the fragmentation of global trade governance amidst emerging regional pacts and varied ideological visions of economic liberalism.

Shaping green regionalism: New trade law approaches to environmental sustainability

AbstractGreen regionalism aims to mutually reinforce environmental governance and economic integration. The article provides the first analysis of green regionalism in international law. It argues that green regionalism represents a paradigm shift in global normative endeavours towards environmental sustainability. By contextualising three waves of global regionalism, the article unveils the evolving architecture of green regionalism alongside negotiations of the World Trade Organization and multilateral environmental agreements. Moreover, it sheds light on the pertinent disputes and features of new green initiatives galvanised by the European Union, the United States and Asia‐Pacific countries. These developments are pivotal in understanding the trade‐environment nexus and fostering economic resilience in our hyperconnected world.

Implications of the WTO and EU fuel taxation reforms for a European fishing fleet: effects, side-effects and alternative approaches from an input–output analysis of the Galician (northwest Spain) fleet

The World Trade Organization (WTO) and European Union (EU) have both put forward tax reforms that impact fisheries’ fuel costs, which are similar in the object of taxation but quite different in the externalities addressed, goals, scope, exemptions or tax rates, creating an opportunity to compare the effects and discuss the alternatives. These proposals are the result of long and intense debates in political, social and academic spheres. However, certain aspects remain unclear. First of all, the number of empirical studies is still limited, particularly considering that fisheries governance is subject to heterogeneous management systems and institutional contexts creating room for different potential outputs. Second, coastal states have no fiscal competence beyond 12 miles, which limits the scope of the reforms to small scale fleets (SSF). All in all, the economic consequences for the fleets remain unclear. To this end, we will build on the Galician fishing sector (NW Spain) input–output tables to discuss the direct impacts, effects and side effects of these reforms on a representative European fleet. Flaws identified in both initiatives mean that targeted externalities will not be corrected and, moreover, additional ones, such as distributional effects penalising SSF or fuel spillovers, could be boosted. Alternative policy approaches are discussed.

From farm to fork? Brexit and the International Plant Protection Convention

Import and export controls ensure plant pests and diseases harmful to food production, the plants across our landscape, and ecosystem services, are not moved during trade. The ‘International Plant Protection Convention’ (IPPC) provides the framework for applying preventive measures where they are technically justified, and stipulates controls are not to be used as arbitrary restrictions on international trade. This article examines the aims of the Brexit trade agreements and reviews their alignment with the IPPC and other World Trade Organisation agreements. It argues that unjustified controls have been applied under the guise of protective requirements (contributing to EU-GB trade disruption) and identifies a divergence at the point of regulatory implementation of these laws and treaties by official bodies on both sides. The article reviews the position of Northern Ireland, which, to avoid a ‘hard border’ on the island of Ireland, remains under the European Union (EU)'s plant health (phytosanitary) regime. Reflecting on legislative options available to bring the application of plant health regulations into alignment with the IPPC (such as dispute resolution), these options remain unused. However, the possibility of utilising ‘import authorisations’ would leave neither Great Britain nor EU Member States exposed to any greater environmental risk than that under the single market.

Does opening up change customs? Evidence from trade liberalization and marriage payments in China

AbstractThere is widespread concern about whether opening up changes cultural customs. However, empirical evidence remains limited. In this paper, we provide new evidence on this issue by examining the impact of trade liberalization on marriage payment customs in China. We first provide a conceptual framework based on a labor market perspective to illustrate how trade liberalization has driven changes in marriage payment customs. Then, using China's World Trade Organization accession as a quasi‐natural experiment, this paper uses the difference‐in‐differences strategy and China's large‐scale household survey data to conduct an empirical study. Our results suggest that trade liberalization has reduced marriage payments in China, especially the bride price but not the dowry. Evidence from industry and census surveys suggests that the declining earning ability of marriageable men and the increasing relative economic status of women have driven down the bride price from the supply and demand sides, respectively. We also find that the impact of trade liberalization has been concentrated on southern and rural households. In addition to the decline in the bride price, the bad practice of child marriage in China has also been alleviated as a result.

Developing Countries and Joint Statement Initiatives at the WTO: Damned if You Join, Damned if You Don't?

ABSTRACTLimited progress in World Trade Organization (WTO) multilateral trade negotiations has led to calls to expand plurilateral processes through which groups of member states can negotiate new agreements. These calls have manifested in Joint Statement Initiatives (JSIs), covering issues such as investments and e‐commerce. To their proponents, JSIs offer a path to update rules and move towards flexible multilateralism. However, critics argue that JSIs marginalize developing countries and reinforce the dominance of advanced economies. Notwithstanding this criticism, a growing number of developing countries are joining these initiatives. Through data collected from in‐depth interviews with officials from 60 WTO member states, this article examines the drivers for growing JSI membership among developing countries. It illustrates that many are joining JSIs to avoid being excluded from agreements that might become binding in the future. While such membership is driven by fear of exclusion and the preference to ‘be in the room’, the negotiation processes of the JSIs often mean that developing countries have little actual influence over the negotiation outcomes. The article concludes that JSIs represent a significant change in the organization of multilateral trade negotiations and enable larger economies to restore their ‘go‐it‐alone power’ in multilateral trade governance.

Russia Conflict on Twitter: Social factors and polarity on users’ interactions

In the aftermath of armed conflicts, societal expressions unfold through diverse communication channels, with Twitter. Individuals share these expressions, aiming for broader societal consumption, fostering interaction across impacted entities—individuals, businesses, organizations, and governments. This analytical endeavor aims to analyze interaction patterns responding to sociocultural factors and sentimentally charged content on Twitter in the context of the Russia-Ukraine conflict. This research employed a sequential mixed approach to examine social factors in user publications on Twitter and assess their impact on interactions, considering sentimental polarity. The qualitative phase involved netnographic exploration of a total of 2578 tweets, collected from users World Trade Organization since February 24, 2022, until March 31, 2022. The subsequent quantitative phase analyzed the relationship between social factors, sentimental polarity, and user interactions through decision tree analysis. The results show that notably, the categories MET-Mention (35.82%) and MSG-Message (35.82%) emerged as the most frequent Two interactions were the most common (52.5%). The primary theme discussed in the messages was Information with 52.99% of the twits. Negative polarity emerged as the factor triggering more engagement, resulting in higher interaction levels. The majority of interactions (52.5%) were characterized by two interactions. In conclusion, the dominance of the information category underscores the pivotal role of social media in disseminating information during global events. Furthermore, negative sentiment, is associated with conflict-related concerns, correlated with higher interaction levels.

Опасность фрагментации глобальной экономики нарастает

The article examines the reasons for the fragmentation of the world economy and global trade at the beginning of the21st century. The author explores two aspects of this fragmentation. The first relates to the weakening of the World TradeOrganization (WTO) and its rule-making function, which has intensified regionalization, as manifested in the emergence ofmega trade agreements. Further progress of the latter, while the WTO remains relatively weak, may contribute to the futurefragmentation of world trade, from which small developing countries will primarily lose. The second aspect is largely due tothe consequences of the financial crisis of 2008–09, which resulted in the desire of key players to create more autonomousnational economies and ensure economic security to avoid excessive costs in the event of future crises. This gave rise to talkabout strengthening deglobalization trends. The second aspect also includes the U.S. – China trade war with technologicaldecoupling between them, the influence of geopolitical factors on trade, and the impact of industrial policies of large stateson trade. The final part of the article provides a brief analysis of the negative impact of fragmentation on the global economyand trade. The author concludes that geo-economic fragmentation poses a real threat to the global economy.

Technology Prospection of Ora-pro-Nóbis (Pereskia aculeata Mill.): A Non-conventional Food Plant.

The ora-pro-nóbis (Pereskia aculeata Mill.) is a plant from Brazilian biodiversity used for food and medicinal purposes. It has ample technological potential, however, it is still underutilized, being classified as a Non-Conventional Food Plant (PANC). Prospective studies in intellectual property banks make it possible to expand perspectives for scientific research, enhancing the generation of new products. Evaluate the patents of products containing Pereskia aculeata Mill. for the areas of food and health in intellectual property databases. The study was conducted through structured prospective investigation (collection, processing and analysis) in 4 patent databases: National Institute of Intellectual Property (INPI) - Brazil, United States Patent and Trademark Office, World Trade Organization Intellectual Property (WIPO) and Espacenet. The evaluation showed a reduced number of registered patents. In general, 8 patent applications were examined, of which 7 are directly associated with the species (and its derivatives) and 1 is related to a device specially designed for harvesting leaves/fruits and removing thorns. The focus of the patents was the use of the species in the food, pharmaceutical and biotechnological areas, with emphasis on the use of the leaves in the extraction of mucilage and proteins. This study showed that Pereskia aculeata Mill. is a technologically promising plant, because of its nutritional and medicinal composition, and it is important to encourage innovation and the development of new products with the species.

Effect of Inflation on Kenya’s Maize Production and Food Security

The aim of this project was to examine the major determinants of Kenya's maize production. These objectives were actualized by evaluating the role of government policies on Kenya’s maize production for food security between 1992 and 2022 and examining the relationship between inflation and maize production for food security in Kenya between 1992 and 2022. The food availability decline theory would be instrumental in guiding this study. Time-series secondary data from the World Bank, FAOSTAT, and World Trade Organization (WTO) for the relevant period 1990–2022 was used to do this. Using a correlation research design, the econometric analysis of the time-series data revealed that inflation, unemployment, and eventually gross domestic GDP determined maize production. In the near term, the findings demonstrated that the exchange rate, one period's lag in the exchange rate, and the amount and quantity of maize imports all influence maize production. The results imply that in order to lessen the over-reliance on maize production, macroeconomic conditions should be effectively managed to improve domestic maize production, deter a spike in imports of the grain, and enhance food security in the nation.

Kebijakan Perdagangan Uni Eropa terhadap Produk Logam Dasar

Trade relations between the European Union and China experienced rapid growth during the first two decades of the 21st century. The increase in trade relations is in line with the implementation of EU trade barriers through anti-dumping investigation reports at the World Trade Organization (WTO) against Chinese products. In the period 2001 – 2022, Chinese base metal products became the commodity with the most reported cases in antidumping investigations carried out by the EU at the WTO. However, in the same period, the value of imports of basic metal products to the European Union was lower compared to the value of imports of other products such as electricity & equipment as well as machine products, nuclear reactors and boilers. This article aims to explain the reasons behind the European Union's stance in making Chinese base metal products the most common commodity in antidumping investigation reports at the WTO. This article uses Alan Bryman's qualitative method, and the neoclassical realism theory proposed by Gideon Rose to analyze European Union policy towards Chinese Base Metal Products. The application of systemic pressure variables in neoclassical realism theory influences the European Union's position in the international system as an external factor, while there are other variables, in this case internal factors, which also influence the European Union's strategic trade policy-making process through the European Commission. The findings of this article show that China's dominance in world metals consumption and production since the early 2000s, especially in the 2013 – 2017 period, triggered the European Commission's perception that the European base metals industry was experiencing a decline in competitiveness and needed protection. In the 2013-2017 period, China's contribution to the world base metals market increased by 13% compared to 8% in the previous decade. On the other hand, the European Commission has maximized its influence in mobilizing national forces as outlined in the resolution document 2017/C399/12 to build a sustainable base metals industry. The European Union's trade policy in making Chinese base metal products the highest case report in antidumping investigations at the WTO over the last two decades, was driven by the European Commission, as the trade policy formulation unit in the European Union, to respond to systemic challenges in the global base metals market.

Challenges Faced by China s International Intellectual Property Protection in the Context of Globalization and Countermeasures

With the spread of economic globalization, knowledge economy has become the latest economic situation, intellectual property rights began to attract the attention of all countries in the world. Since China s accession to the World Trade Organization, more and more foreign trade activities, which has also promoted the improvement of our comprehensive national strength to a certain extent. The international protection of intellectual property rights is of great significance on a global scale, which is related to a country s innovation ability and competitiveness, and more importantly, to the stability and prosperity of the global economic order. Based on this, this paper studies the issues related to the international protection of intellectual property.

Challenges Faced by Vietnam and Other Developing Countries in Participating in the WTO Dispute Settlement System (DSS)

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is currently experiencing a crisis in its dispute system, driven by an increasing number of disputes, escalating complexity of case law, and the ongoing blockade by the United States of Appellate Body appointments since 2016. This blockade has resulted in significant delays in the WTO’s litigation process, disproportionately affecting developing countries - majority members of the WTO - due to the substantial financial costs associated with pursuing litigation. This study aims to analyze the challenges faced by Vietnam and other developing nations in navigating the WTO dispute system. Employing a qualitative methodology, this research will draw on primary sources including legal documents, official WTO reports, and governmental statements. The findings are expected to highlight the limitations of current WTO regulations, the inadequate support from the Advisory Centre on WTO Law (ACWL), and the financial obstacles that deter developing countries from participating actively in the Dispute Settlement System.

Does the World Trade Organization Enable Biosecurity and Trade for Importers and Exporters?

Abstract Our paper sheds light on Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) cooperation among trading countries. We contribute to the existing literature a data-driven analysis on the effectiveness of various forms (in monetary value, duration, and diversification) of SPS related technical assistance received by 33 countries from 1993 to 2015. The World Trade Organization's (WTO's) SPS Agreement encourages biosecurity for countries through technical assistance, to safeguard human health and productivity from contamination by biological hazards (pests, pathogens, or invasive species). Our panel model finds that WTO's SPS program encourages simultaneously agricultural trade and biosecurity. We implement a Multiple Indicator Solution (MIS) to correct bias from the endogenous technical assistance. The effectiveness of technical assistance depends on geography and the level of development among the heterogeneous countries referred to in our data. This investment in biosecurity benefits both donors and recipients of technical assistance. Based on our results donors should be encouraged to invest in countries with below average resources and abilities.

Effects of Imported Inputs on Export Sophistication: Evidence from Chinese Manufacturing Firms

ABSTRACT This study investigates the distinct effects of imported intermediate and capital goods on manufacturing firms’ overall and domestic sophistication. We use the plausible exogenous tariff reductions caused by China’s accession to the World Trade Organization to construct firm-level instrumental variables for the import intensity of intermediate and capital goods. Empirical results demonstrate that imported intermediate goods increase firms’ overall sophistication, but decrease firms’ domestic sophistication. By contrast, imported capital goods increase overall and domestic sophistication. Mechanism tests reveal that imported intermediate and capital goods expand firms’ production scale. However, only capital goods have innovation induction and human capital complementary effects, while intermediate goods may substitute for human capital. This study has significant implications by revealing the existence of both complementary and substitution effects of imported inputs on China’s domestic technological upgrading.

An Evaluation of the Dispute Settlement System in the World Trade Organization

The main goal of the World Trade Organization (WTO) upon its founding was to guarantee the unhindered and unrestricted flow of goods and services. The Dispute Settlement System, which guarantees prompt resolution of disputes, is the foundation of the WTO. The purpose of this study was to examine how the WTO's Dispute Settlement Body resolves trade disputes. This study explicitly looked at the WTO Dispute Settlement System, identifying its goals and determining whether it facilitates the realization of these goals. The study also assessed the types of disputes that fall under the purview of the WTO Dispute System Body. The research used the doctrinal research approach to accomplish this aim. In the World Trade Organization, trade disputes often occur when a member state or states adopt a measure or measures that the WTO deems to be at odds with the commitments outlined in the WTO agreements. Realizing the practical significance of the member states' obligations requires the prompt and organized settlement of trade disputes. Thus, the study outlined some of the difficulties DSB is facing as well as future directions. These include, among other things, the protracted dispute resolution procedure, the appellate body dilemma, the lack of transparency, and the handling of new trade issues. The study suggested that the system be made more open and visible to the general public as a result. Additionally, the system has to select panelists who are qualified to handle the cases that are brought before panels due to their increasingly complicated substance.

Unilateral Sanctions under International Law and Effectiveness of Blocking

INTRODUCTION. This article discusses modern international legal concept of unilateral sanctions. The authors contribute to the emerging discussion on the qualifying of unilateral sanctions under international law.MATERIALS AND METHODS. In this study we took into account the works of both Russian and foreign scholars in the field of international economic law, as well as analyzed documents and materials of international organizations (United Nations (UN), World Trade Organization (WTO) and others) in order to assess the compatibility of unilateral sanctions with international law. General scientific methods of cognition (analysis, synthesis, induction, and deduction), special legal methods (formal-legal, technical-legal, method of legal analogy) and comparative legal method were used in the presented research.RESEARCH RESULTS. Presented analysis has shown that widely used term “unilateral sanctions” leads to abusive and inappropriate use of international legal term. Analysis of compatibility of unilateral sanctions with other types of coercive measures such as countermeasures, UN Security Council sanctions, retortions, reprisals have shown that unilateral sanctions do not fall under the meaning of all mentioned measures. In addition, unilateral sanctions should not be justified under the WTO security exceptions. The use of extraterritorial unilateral sanctions contradicts one of the fundamental principles of international law – principle of non-interference in internal affairs. Existing blocking unilateral sanctions mechanisms are not efficient enough to compensate negative effect posed by unilateral sanctions.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. Authors concluded that unilateral sanctions in most of the cases do not satisfy cumulative criteria of legitimate countermeasure. Unilateral sanctions are not equivalent to the United Nation Security Council sanctions, as there are no “checks and balances” in the decision-making process in the form of determining the degree of threat to peace and security and taking into account humanitarian exceptions. Although there is some correlation between unilateral sanctions and retortions or reprisals, retortions and reprisals posses criteria of legality and proportionality, while, unilateral sanctions are introduced at the state’s discretion without any standard. Furthermore, the authors argue that to avoid abusive use of the WTO security exceptions WTO panels have to rely on the well-balanced approach used by the Panel in Russia – Transit case. This approach shows that the context of security exception should be understood as encompassing only military and closely related to military issues and does not cover political, economic, cultural or any other interests and relations. Existing blocking mechanisms of unilateral sanctions require separate qualification under international law including compatibility with the legitimate countermeasures.

Germany's Economic Integration: Automotive Industry and FDI Analysis

In this paper, Germany's significant role was explored in regional integration and its competitive edge in the automotive manufacturing industry, underlining the country's strategic involvement in the European Union and World Trade Organisation. Germany’s participation in the EU has been instrumental in promoting economic integration across Europe, benefiting from free trade agreements and contributing to the EU’s status as a major trade bloc. The paper also delves into the reasons behind Germany's prowess in the automotive sector, using Porter's Diamond Model to analyze factors like advanced technology, skilled workforce, strict consumer standards, and supportive industries, all contributing to the country's global competitiveness in this domain. Furthermore, the study investigates the dynamics of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Germany, identifying key attractions for foreign investors such as technological leadership, a robust market, efficient infrastructure, and favorable investment policies. However, challenges like rigorous government regulations on FDI and cultural differences pose potential hurdles for foreign investors. The conclusion emphasizes that while Germany offers substantial opportunities due to its economic strength and market potential, foreign entities must carefully navigate these challenges to successfully invest and operate in the German market.

Troops are Business Schools: Military Service and Entrepreneurial Behaviors in China

Although research has examined the benefits of military service and the impact of military executives on business operations, the relationship between military service and entrepreneurial behavior remains poorly understood. Using the instrumental variable approach and a nationally representative male sample from the China Labor-forces Dynamic Survey, we discovered that military service significantly increased the probability of entrepreneurship in China, even after a series of robustness checks. Mechanism tests indicated that this positive effect could be explained by human and political capital accumulation, military-related social capital formation, and risk appetite traits. Our supplemental analyses demonstrated that exogenous shocks from the special military-in-business policy strengthened the positive entrepreneurial effect, whereas the higher education expansion policy and China’s accession to the World Trade Organization weakened this effect. Additionally, military entrepreneurs had better business performance and more resilient, persistent, and confident traits. We found no evidence that Chinese veterans were forced to become entrepreneurs. This study enriches research on the styles and traits of military entrepreneurs and managers and provides important insights for assessing and improving veteran welfare policies in China and other developing countries.