World Policy Research Articles

Historical and Sociological Analysis of the Value World of the Cultural Policy of the Siberian Tatars (The Case Study of the Russian Archive Documents of the 18th – 19th Centuries)

The nature of the cultural policy of the Siberian Tatars and its connection with the value world is described for the first time. This material singles out and describes three levels in the development of the anthroponymys value world in the national cultural policy (ancient, middle-aged, and new Turkic). The authors used comparative methods (investigation of archives) and empirical methods, namely, the generalization of the great human experience, which is formed at the levels of cultural policy forming (ancient, middle-aged, and new Turkic). According to the level of religiousness of the ancient Turks, the system of ideas, which is reflected in the needs and desires due to naive mental activity, the authors singled out the ancient model of constructing their cultural policy or the first ancient level of values in the cultural policy of the Siberian Tatars. The anthroponyms system of the Siberian Tatars is an axiological worldview observing objective and subjective evaluative attitudes. The subject in the cultural policy becomes familiar with the value world of name-giving, the system of ideas or ideology appears, which is transformed into a certain stage of development. Cultural policy in the ancient period was created but it is changed in the modern world. The novelty of the study is in the fact that the object category was studied in the cultural policy of Siberian Tatars indefinitely. Our investigation showed interrelation between human being and his experience (object and subject). Our motivation to study the value world of the cultural policy of the Siberian Tatars is supported by the idea that harmony and peace between cultures is possible only in the way of value world and its priorities understanding. New research results complement theoretical generalizations, open up new conceptual opportunities in solving national problems, and make it possible to formulate new strategic goals in our multinational state. They can improve the implementation of cultural policy by social society in goal setting and identification of national cultural values and priorities in the creation on their basis of targeted programs and expenses.

Managing internal policy risk: Australia, the UK and the US compared

Most studies of risk management examine only exogenous risks – that is, those external to the policy-making process such as the impact of climate change, extreme weather events, natural disasters or financial calamities. But there is also a large second area of concern – “internal risks” or those linked to adverse or malicious behavior on the part of policy makers. This behavior to deceive or “game” the intentions and expectations of government is a part of the policy world which also requires risk management. The paper reviews three archetypal cases of efforts to manage this side of policy risk in the UK, the US and Australia and draws lessons from them about how best to deal with or manage this “darkside” of policy-making.

A shared future: chemistry's engagement is essential for resilience of people and planet.

Strengthening resilience—elasticity or adaptive capacity—is essential in responding to the wide range of natural hazards and anthropogenic changes humanity faces. Chemistry's roles in resilience are explored for the first time, with its technical capacities set in the wider contexts of cross-disciplinary working and the intersecting worlds of science, society and policy. The roles are framed by chemistry's contributions to the sustainability of people and planet, examined via the human security framework's four material aspects of food, health, economic and environmental security. As the science of transformation of matter, chemistry is deeply involved in these material aspects and in their interfacing with human security's three societal and governance aspects of personal, community and political security. Ultimately, strengthening resilience requires making choices about the present use of resources as a hedge against future hazards and adverse events, with these choices being co-determined by technical capacities and social and political will. It is argued that, to intensify its contributions to resilience, chemistry needs to take action along at least three major lines: (i) taking an integrative approach to the field of ‘chemistry and resilience’; (ii) rethinking how the chemical industry operates; and (iii) engaging more with society and policy-makers.

Networks of knowledge production and mobility in the world of social impact bonds

ABSTRACT Social impact bonds (SIBs) are a social policy model for privately financing social programs on an outcomes basis. Like other social and development policy trends of the last decade, the construction of SIBs has been characterised by a global circulatory infrastructure that has seen them emerge in upwards of 30 countries. In this article, we interrogate the dynamics of the SIB ‘policy world’ that has enabled that mobility. We build a novel dialogue between the theoretical frameworks of ‘policy mobilities’ and ‘policy knowledge networks’. We argue that the lack of engagement with the internal dynamics of networks is a missed opportunity for political economy and policy mobilities approaches. As such, we employ a novel form of social network analysis, examining the ties of collaboration and advice between the authors of SIB policy texts and the organisations that they are embedded in. We find that SIB texts were authored by a disconnected community that rarely collaborated across organisational or jurisdictional borders. Knowledge production in the SIB world was uneven, as places and actors with ‘good knowledge’ were repeatedly engaged. We conclude that the financialisation of global social policy that SIBs impel is constructed through hierarchies of space and place.

Interdisciplinary approach by IT-technologies implementation into the civil procedure

This article substantiates that the demand for large research projects of the mega class in the field of social sciences is very high today. The system of regulators of public relations is faced with unprecedented challenges: from the need to develop state and world policies regarding the regulation of the use of AI and cyberspace to the determination of the boundaries of the possible replacement of humans with information technologies. The key aspect in this discourse is the activity of the state to ensure the protection of the rights in civil procedure. In this area, there is a need for an interdisciplinary and transnational nature of research. World legal practice needs a uniform approach to the digitalization of the law, to the status of IT-information, to its use in the cognitive activity of the court1. Introduction

EP513: “Doctors shouldn’t have to cheat the system”: Clinicians’ real-world experiences of the utility of genomic sequencing

There is a chasm between policymakers who evaluate and fund new genetic tests and clinicians’ real-world use and experiences of these tests. In the policy world, emerging genetic tests are generally evaluated based on diagnostic rate and clinical management changes, often referred to as clinical utility, to inform funding and adoption. However, in clinical practice, genomic tests are often used and valued for benefits beyond diagnosis and management. Genomic medicine has reached a watershed moment: emerging tests are becoming more comprehensive, identifying diagnoses for a broader range of conditions, and opening up the possibilities of more benefits for patients but frameworks remain limited to diagnosis and clinical management in their evaluations.

Genocide Studies Scholarship and its Failure to Solve the “Two Cultures” Problem

Herb Hirsch repeatedly insisted that genocide studies ought to be about high-quality social scientific scholarship that raises the alarm about emerging cases of group destruction and successfully presses political leaders and state bureaucracies to fashion informed and workable plans to prevent and stop genocides and other human rights abuses. In this retrospective, I explore Hirsch’s view that genocide studies scholarship is overly abstract, prone to recycling theories and cases, and is serially unable to influence government policy, or more specifically, American policy. At the heart of Hirsch’s critique was his strong belief that scholars must “profess” so that the gulf between the “two cultures” of the academic and the policy worlds can be bridged in the service of confronting and stopping genocides and other human rights abuses around the world. I conclude that the “two cultures” problem cannot be “solved” since academics are neither policy-makers nor journalists, and that there is (and ought to be) room in genocide studies and the social sciences generally for theoretically grounded problem-driven research from a multiplicity of theoretical and methodological approaches.

Dismantled: The Breakup of an Urban School System: Detroit, 1980-2016 by Leanne Kang

Reviewed by: Dismantled: The Breakup of an Urban School System: Detroit, 1980-2016 by Leanne Kang Jeffrey R. Henig Leanne Kang. Dismantled: The Breakup of an Urban School System: Detroit, 1980-2016. New York: Teachers College Press, 2020. Pp. 132. Index. Notes. Paperback: $34.95. The world of education policy often is portrayed in quick flashes and disconnected contemporary events. This or that proposal is enacted by this or [End Page 148] that school board or state. A new study shows that this or that policy initiative is working, or that it's not. This or that new school superintendent (state legislator, or "education governor") is showing the country what can be done. But these flashes and vignettes can distract from important trends that are slow-moving with long and loopy causal chains. In Dismantled: The Breakup of an Urban School System: Detroit, 1980-2016, Leanne Kang provides an alternative perspective, linked to a concise and clearly presented history of a nearly four-decade erosion of locally controlled public education in Detroit. This is a compact book: 94 pages of text (132, including footnotes and references). As such, it seems more designed for interested citizens or students rather than historians wanting deep and original scholarship. Kang, an assistant professor of educational foundations at Grand Valley State University, weaves a mélange of "newspaper and magazine articles, reports, websites, government documents, pamphlets and a body of secondary sources" (7) into a compelling narrative that she grounds in the political science concept of "regime change." (4-6) Broad changes in governance institutions, in her telling, both reflect and further feed a shift in the array of political interests with access and influence over Detroit's fate. The core of the book is organized around four key episodes of governance change. The first, Proposal A, championed by then-governor John Engler, was approved by Michigan voters in 1994. On its face, this was a school finance reform intended to replace a system of high and inequitable local property taxes with state revenues, but the shift to state funding also constituted a sharp shift to state-driven initiatives at the expense of local district control. The second, mayoral control, was an on-again (1999), off-again (2004) state-led experiment to shift power over education policy from the elected school board to the mayor. The third key policy was the 2009 naming of Robert Bobb as emergency financial manager for Detroit schools; although prompted by the school system's severe fiscal problems, Bobb attempted to use his office to broadly restructure the system in ways that had academic and political ramifications as well. Bobb's tenure sparked backlash and ultimately his resignation, but then-governor Rick Snyder opted to double-down on the belief that salvation and progress depended on keeping locally elected representatives on the margins. In 2011, he signed a state law super-charging the position of emergency manager to explicitly include authority over academic and curriculum matters and then established a new body—the Educational Achievement Authority—to fully take over the district's schools. Kang does a good job of explicating the political currents propelling these seemingly distinct governance shifts. The Michigan reformers' [End Page 149] animating vision was not anchored in ideas or evidence about teaching and instruction; it had less to do with ideas about what should happen in Detroit's classrooms than ideas about who should be calling the shots. Local educators, the teachers' union, the traditional school board and, by extension, the parents who elected the school board, were seen as witting or unwitting defenders of a dysfunctional system. National reformers, philanthropists, private education providers, state political leaders, and business and civic elites would start over and do better. Most favored a more market-oriented approach to education: contracting with provide providers, propagating charter schools and other parental choice options, weakening the constraints on imposed by collective bargaining on hiring, evaluating, firing, and rewarding teachers based on measured student gains. Kang doesn't romanticize the old regime and corruption, patronage, and mismanagement that helped make Detroit an easy target for those with idealistic or self-interested motives to push aside the old structures and their occupants...

UK food policy: implications for nutritionists.

Implications of the 'changing world' for nutrition and nutritionists are considered, using the UK within a global context as an illustration. The first section summarises the slow recognition by policy makers of the significance of the changing world of food and nutrition. The second section 'Food system stress is now at a critical level' considers the present scale of global food system stress and the failure so far sufficiently to narrow the gap between evidence and policy change. The year 2021 was earmarked when three major UN conferences had the opportunity to chart food changes ahead. The third section 'Multi-criteria analysis helps frame 21st century nutrition science' proposes that multi-criteria analysis is an essential methodology for nutrition within this more complex policy world; nutrition studies can no long exclude social and environmental criteria. The penultimate section 'Nutrition science can reconnect its life science, social and environmental nutrition traditions to contribute to new paradigm formation' suggests that nutrition science can now recombine three traditions within its own history to address this complexity: social nutrition, environmental nutrition and life sciences. The final section 'Priorities ahead' concludes that this multi-criteria approach to nutrition offers new routes for science and policy influence. Five priorities are identified: (1) clarification of the features of a good food system; (2) new sustainable dietary guidelines which integrate different determinants of sustainability; (3) helping consumer engagement with change; (4) developing improved policy frameworks and (5) contributing to professional channels in these processes. In the UK, while the challenge of narrowing the gap between evidence, policy and change remains daunting, the risks of not attempting to improve the transition to an ecologically sound public health nutrition are even greater.

WORLD BANK: New Grants and Loans

Africa Research Bulletin: Economic, Financial and Technical SeriesVolume 58, Issue 12 p. 23691B-23694A Policy and Practice WORLD BANK: New Grants and Loans First published: 03 February 2022 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6346.2022.10385.xRead the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Volume58, Issue12February 2022Pages 23691B-23694A RelatedInformation

Applying Game-Based Experiential Learning to Comprehensive Sustainable Development-Based Education

To promote the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), public awareness of the importance and urgency of sustainable development should be raised by providing relevant education programs. Although game-based learning has been confirmed to be one of the most effective routes to deepen public understanding of the SDGs and sustainable development in general, games for comprehensive sustainable development-based courses have yet to be popularized. Thus, we developed a game-based learning approach that delivers comprehensive conceptual information on SDGs. Based on Kolb’s theory of experiential learning, students understood the relevance of the SDGs by playing a board game designed to simulate the real world, including national and international policies. Furthermore, considering the suspension of in-person learning and shifts to digital instruction caused by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, a digital version of the board game was created to compare the effects of digital and non-digital game-based learning. A comprehensive sustainable development evaluation questionnaire was developed and optimized using the fuzzy Delphi method to assess the participants’ knowledge of and attitudes toward the SDGs. Our results reveal that the digital and non-digital board game both improve students’ knowledge and attitude toward sustainable development. However, the digital board game was more effective than the non-digital board game.

ГОСУДАРСТВЕННАЯ ПОЛИТИКА ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОЙ БЕЗОПАСНОСТИ В УСЛОВИЯХ САНКЦИЙ

The issues of the economic security of the state in modern conditions of the new world policy in the field of geopolitics and geoeconomics are discussed in the article. The current new world position in the conditions of sanctions of leading world economic powers against the Russian Federation is presented, this situation forces the world community the need to make new strategic decisions to ensure the country's economic security. As a result of the study of this area, it was revealed that in international relations in the modern world, the system of monopolarity gradually begins to change towards the multipolar system in the world arena. The sanctions introduced have a great influence on international trade relations and how, a consequence is observed by the change in the polarity of the world system especially in the field of international economic and political relations. The statistical analysis of the trade relations of the Russian Federation, China and the USA convincingly showed that the introduction of political and economic sanctions against the Russian Federation affects all world states, which forced the countries to ensure the economic and political security of its state, in extreme cases, to maintain sovereignty or neutrality. In addition, a change in the main trading partners in the countries under consideration is observed and, as a result, an increase or decrease in trade between these countries. And most importantly, almost all countries began to look for a solution to the issue of political and economic security primarily with cross -border countries, as well as the adoption of measures aimed at overcoming the current situations and the consequences of the influence of sanctions regarding their countries

ПУБЛИЧНАЯ ПОЛИТИКА: РАЗВИТИЕ ЗАРУБЕЖНЫХ И РОССИЙСКИХ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЙ

The basic directions of contemporary research in the field of public policy are the subject of analysis. The experience of World and Russian public policy research is analyzed. The concepts of governance, political cycles, policy learning, advocacy coalition, multiple streams, boundary organizations are in the focus of analysis, as well as digital participation. In field of Russian researches network public policy, municipal public policy, concept of mediator institutes as well as influence of digitalization are subject of analysis. The institutional basement for public policy development (university chairs and research committee of Russian Political Science association) are object for analysis also.

Trade Openness, Foreign Direct Investment and Sustainable Agriculture in Africa

This study applied a panel data of 37 African countries in examining the impact of trade openness and foreign direct investment on sustainable agriculture towards the attainment of the United Nation (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially, SDG-2, with the aim of ending extreme hunger, achieve food security and improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. Data for the study was sourced from the Country Policy and Institutional Assessment (CPIA) and World Development Indicators (WDI) of the World Bank, for the period 2005 – 2019. To control for endogeneity, the study engaged the system Generalised Method of Moments (GMM). The result shows that FDI and trade openness have significant negative impact on agricultural sustainability in Africa. This result implies that, increase in FDI may decrease agricultural sustainability by 0.00294%, while increase in trade openness may lower agricultural sustainability by 0.430066 %. Therefore, the study concludes that while trade openness is negative, policy to raise local production towards export promotion should be encouraged. In addition, FDI should be encouraged to augment local employment and investment towards increasing output and productivity in the Africa region.

Following performative imaginations: Social enterprises, policy networks, and reforming primary education in Bangladesh

Drawing upon research in Bangladesh, we highlight the role of “imagination” in the way policy networks pursued social entrepreneurial reforms within primary education and NGO sectors. Applying a cultural globalisation lens to network ethnography as method, we found such pre-emptive “imaginations” to be performative insofar as key network actors mentally constructed locally governable worlds of policy as a part of their day-to-day work. These actors worked in and after their imaginations by mentally scripting policy problems and reform solutions in terms of imagined governable communities, reform aspirations, and dedicated discourses. Exemplifying and institutionalising reforms even partially, these actors mentally navigated webs of actions, practices, logics, relationships, resources, and other actors. Analysing interview data and documents we investigated three policy networks.

Critical Analysis of Multi Sectoral Policies related to Marble Industry in Pakistan

Incentive Based (IB) and Command and Control (CAC) instruments are identified in various legislative Acts and Policy documents based on the criteria of environmental economics. Despite the advantages of IB strategies the world of policy making is somewhat locked into the path of traditional approaches such as CAC and pose inertia to move forward in environmental policy making. An ethical shift is inevitable anywhere where there is a market failure and increased social costs and inefficiencies in government interventions to regulate the market. Regulations are discrete steps to address feedbacks in a complex system. Policy evaluation and testing criteria is used to evaluate and test the policies regulating marble extraction and processing in Pakistan. A set of policy and regulatory instruments are selected to be critiqued. The coexisting policy approaches found in the study shall be tested on system dynamics model for developing insights and long-term implications.

AN ASSESSMENT OF PRIVACY REGIME IN BANGLADESH

Privacy is one of the most valued human rights in the information age. Due to the present digital world context, privacy appears as one of the pressing problems. In a data-driven world, a vast majority of works are going online using personal data. Personal data emerge as the new fuel to the Internet, and coin to the digital world. This digital atmosphere makes life easier, faster, and smarter, while simultaneously posing tremendous challenges to privacy. Therefore, the debate encompassing privacy evolves as one of the hot-button issues in contemporary world policies, politics, and business. In response, multiple policy measures have been adopted at national, regional, and international levels. To cope with this global trend, establish a safer online ecosystem, and secure citizens’ right to privacy, Bangladesh should maintain an adequate privacy protection regime. This landscape leads the current researcher to explore and assess the privacy protection regime of Bangladesh, as there is a lack of research in this area. There is a clear gap in the existing literature that requires to be filled in, and this research aimed to fill that gap using doctrinal legal research. The findings revealed that privacy was not adequately protected in Bangladesh due to, mainly, the lack of omnibus data privacy legislation. This article concluded by offering some workable suggestions, and especially, urged for enacting comprehensive data protection legislation in Bangladesh. Presumably, this research will enlighten all stakeholders regarding an overall picture of the privacy protection regime of Bangladesh. Moreover, this study will facilitate relevant stakeholders to map their future strategies and policy directions towards establishing an effective privacy protection regime in Bangladesh.

Actualities of formation of the sovereign fund of well-being of Ukraine in the post-war period

The peculiarities of forming a single sovereign fund of Ukraine with a vector for stabilization and postwar development are considered, which made it possible to establish how these funds can be used in the project of international financial assistance and development of world policy coherence around fiscal ideologies of international financial organizations. The article defines the essence of sovereign wealth funds and forms the main stages of their development, outlines the main classification features inherent in sovereign wealth funds. The theoretical foundations of the functioning of sovereign wealth funds are analyzed. It is determined that one of the most effective tools used to increase public welfare through the use of state resources, which according to the Constitution belong to the whole people, are sovereign welfare funds. It is established that sovereign wealth funds are an essential source of financing for the development of the world economy and, at the same time, a tool for increasing the influence of state capital of individual countries on the global economy. They are not formed from tax revenues from goods sold on the domestic market. The main task is to increase welfare, not redistribution of budget funds. The article considers the sources of filling the sovereign wealth fund, offers new ways to ensure financial stabilization through the use of financial reserves accumulated in sovereign wealth funds. The management system of this fund should include cross-checking and transparency of project competitions. Therefore, the activities of the fund will be monitored by an expert and supervisory board. It is argued that the formation of a sovereign welfare fund in the postwar period acts as an infrastructural holistic support for the formation of a new type of civic responsibility for the common good, fostering a sense of common historical destiny.

ІСТОРІЯ ПОВТОРЮЄТЬСЯ: НЕСПРОМОЖНІСТЬ СВІТОВИХ СИЛ МИРУ Й ДЕМОКРАТІЇ ЗАПОБІГТИ РОЗВ'ЯЗУВАННЮ ПЛАНЕТАРНОЇ ВІЙНИ В 2-Й ПОЛОВИНІ 1930-Х РОКІВ

In this paper the international political situation, which was established in Europe and in the world in the latter half of the 30s of the 20th century, is investigated. The authors draw a comparison between the 20s and 30s of the 20th century, pointing out that the 30s brought a series of military conflicts, as well as say that the fear of a new great war has been appeared throughout the world. Attention is drawn to the inactivity of the League of Nations, which failed to ensure a collective security policy between 1936 and 1938. Special attention has been drawn to the appeasement policy and the role of Great Britain and France in this policy, who did not want to bring the situation to military confrontation. It is pointed out that by the mid-1930s Germany went on the offensive and set itself the goal of achieving supremacy in Europe. Special attention is drawn to the reaction of Western countries to Hitler’s aggressive policy, as well as the actions of the Soviet Union and the policy carried out by Moscow on the eve of World War II are assessed. It is stated that in 1938-1939 the world policy increasingly focused on particular regions, where the conflict number and intensity were increasing sharply. The role of the Munich Conference in September 1938 and the fact that the initiative in international affairs was completely transferred to A. Hitler upon the signing of the agreement are determined. The policy of Great Britain and France after the Munich Conspiracy is analysed; it is explained why London and Paris thought primarily about personal security. A special place in this paper is given to the explanation of why the existing international system could no longer ensure the world order and why war becomes inevitable. The authors come to the conclusion that although Hitler managed to win the diplomatic struggle on the eve of World War II, but he did not finally become a triumphant.

How Chinese Sovietologists Perceived and Interpreted Soviet Foreign Policy in the Early 1980s

This article will examine the analyses of Chinese Soviet-watchers on Soviet foreign policy against the larger context of China’s political setting in the early 1980s, before the rise of Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985, and investigate how those Chinese scholars placed post- Mao Chinese official agendas centrally in their research. In the early 1980s, when the Sino-Soviet relations were in estrangement and the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan had exacerbated the bilateral relations, the CCP regime called for the state-wide denunciation of the so-called Soviet hegemonism (baquan zhuyi). After that, Chinese Soviet-watchers became preoccupied with criticizing Soviet hegemonism in their writings. This article will show that both the real Soviet military threat along the PRC border after Moscow’s incursion into Afghanistan, and the historical memory of the past Russian invasion of China played key roles in intensifying the hostility of Chinese scholars toward the USSR in the early 1980s. The criticisms gradually receded after Mikhail Gorbachev took power in 1985, and the label of Soviet hegemonism finally disappeared from Chinese Sovietology writings in the late 1980s, when the bilateral relations had normalized. Moscow’s relations with Albania, Yugoslavia and the Third World also became popular topics in the early 1980s Chinese writings. In the case of Albania, although post-Mao China deeply disliked Albanian dictator Enver Hoxha’s Maoist isolation policy, Chinese scholars highly appreciated Albania’s resistance to Moscow’s domination in the early 1980s. Their stand served quite well to China’s anti-Soviet position then. In the early days of the decade, the CCP regime was attracted by Yugoslavia’s intransigence toward the Kremlin and, most importantly, Belgrade’s trajectory of reform that deviated from the orthodox Soviet model. Many Chinese Soviet-watchers supported wholeheartedly Yugoslavia’s stand in its conflicts with Moscow since the end of the Second World War. The trend reflects China’s ambition of challenging the Soviet domination of the socialist camp, and its aspiration to embrace Yugoslavia’s trajectory of reform, which mixed central planning and market mechanism, and is exactly the path the PRC has taken since 1978. Chinese perceptions of Soviet-Third World relations should also be viewed in the context of China’s Third World policy direction in the early 1980s, when the CCP regime was determined to end Maoist isolation and become a partner of the underdeveloped nations. Chinese scholars always had strong sympathy for the Third World and stood by the side of those countries through their criticisms of Soviet aggression in the region. Many of these scholars argued that Soviet behaviours were contradictory to Lenin’s internationalism. In the Chinese mind, Moscow’s unequal treatment of some Third World states evoked memories of China in the past, when the country had also been bullied and weakened by Tsars and the Kremlin after 1949. Chinese scholars strongly promoted and defended the case of the Third World in their articles. The writings demonstrate China’s determination to challenge Moscow’s authority, appeal for redress for past historical wrongdoings, and promote the moral superiority of Chinese socialism over that of the USSR. As such, seen from the early 1980s Chinese criticisms of Soviet foreign policy, Chinese research of Soviet hegemonism, Soviet-Albanian and Soviet-Yugoslavian conflicts, and Soviet-Third World relations all reflected Beijing’s ambitions of challenging the orthodox Soviet model of economic development in the socialist world, competing with the Kremlin for leadership in the developing countries, and projecting a fair and benevolent image of Chinese socialism vis-à-vis Moscow. As has been demonstrated, Chinese Soviet-watchers did not present many vicissitudes of Soviet international manoeuvres in their writings; instead, through research on the formation and evolution of Soviet foreign policy, they attempted to adjust their analyses to align with China’s vision of itself and the world. Their writings function to highlight lessons learned from Moscow, legitimize the CCP rule and the Chinese way of practicing socialism, and to envision the future direction of China in the reform era. In short, Chinese research of Soviet foreign policy in the early 1980s had primarily been to trace problems of Chinese socialism as experienced by scholars at the time of their research; this was done in order to legitimise state agendas, rather than to seek truth about the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).