Working Memory Research Articles

A Systematic Review of Working Memory Applications for Children with Learning Difficulties: Transfer Outcomes and Design Principles

Working memory (WM) is a crucial cognitive function, and a deficit in this function is a critical factor in learning difficulties (LDs). As a result, there is growing interest in exploring different approaches to training WM to support students with LDs. Following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, this systematic review aims to identify current computer-based WM training applications and their theoretical foundations, explore their effects on improving WM capacity and other cognitive/academic abilities, and extract design principles for creating an effective WM application for children with LDs. The 22 studies selected for this review provide strong evidence that children with LDs have low WM capacity and that their WM functions can be trained. The findings revealed four commercial WM training applications—COGMED, Jungle, BrainWare Safari, and N-back—that were utilized in 16 studies. However, these studies focused on suggesting different types of WM tasks and examining their effects rather than making those tasks user-friendly or providing practical guidelines for the end-user. To address this gap, the principles of the Human–Computer Interaction, with a focus on usability and user experience as well as relevant cognitive theories, and the design recommendations from the selected studies have been reviewed to extract a set of proposed guidelines. A total of 15 guidelines have been extracted that can be utilized to design WM training programs specifically for children with LDs.

Are Social Media Notifications Distracting?

Abstract: Visual working memory (VWM), due to its temporary nature, is highly volatile. VWM encoding may be easily disrupted by cues from our visually rich media environment, such as social media logos and notification badges. Yet, to what extent these social media-related cues adversely affect our cognitive processing is not well understood. In three experiments, participants performed a change-detection task with a memory array that contained colored stimuli. Next to the memory array, social media logos with or without notification badges might appear in conjunction with the memory array in critical blocks (Experiment 1) or in critical trials (Experiment 2 and 3). The presence of social media logos with notification badges adversely affected change detection performance in Experiment 1, but not in Experiment 2 or 3. Overall, the findings seem to indicate that the presence of social media logos does not interfere with visual working memory performance.

Development of inattention and executive dysfunction in youth with spina bifida: condition severity variables as predictors

ABSTRACT Youth with spina bifida (SB) are at increased risk for inattention and executive dysfunction challenges. This study aimed to characterize the development of inattention and executive dysfunction in SB and examine the relationship between condition severity (i.e. lesion level, shunt status, and shunt revisions) and inattention and executive dysfunction at age 11.5 and longitudinally. Participants included 140 youth with SB. Condition severity was collected via parent reports and chart review. Parents and teachers reported on youth’s inattention and executive dysfunction using informant-based measures across five time points. Parents and teachers both reported linear decreases in inhibition and working memory problems. Development of inattention and shifting problems varied by reporter. At 11.5 years, shunt status predicted worse parent- and teacher-reported inattention and executive dysfunction, while shunt revisions predicted worse parent-reported working memory alone. Higher lesion level predicted fewer parent-reported inhibition problems at 11.5 years. Over time, more shunt revisions and higher lesion level predicted worse parent-reported inattention and inhibition, respectively. Findings suggest that inattention and executive dysfunction may significantly change over time in youth with SB, related to condition severity and reporter. Early deficit identification and intervention implementation, particularly for youth with greater SB severity, may result in better longitudinal outcomes.

Feature versus object in interpreting working memory capacity.

The debate about whether the capacity of working memory (WM) varies with the complexity of memory items continues. This study employed novel experimental materials to investigate the role of complexity in WM capacity. Across seven experiments, we explored the relationship between complexity and WM capacity. The results indicated that the complexity of memory items significantly affects WM capacity. However, given the non-linear relationship between complexity and WM capacity, we propose that WM may not allocate resources directly to each individual item. Instead, it might integrate these items to some extent before storage.

Effect of JM-20 on Age-Related Cognitive Impairment in Mice.

The decline in cognitive function associated with aging significantly impacts the well-being of elderly individuals and their families. This decline is a major recognized risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases, notably Alzheimer's disease. Animal models of aging provide a platform for evaluating drugs concerning aspects like memory and oxidative stress. JM-20 has demonstrated protective effects on short-term memory acquisition and consolidation, along with antioxidant properties and modulation of Acetylcholinesterase activity. This study assesses the potential protective JM-20 against cognitive decline and age-related memory loss. For the study, aged mice exhibiting aging-associated damage were initially selected. Experimental groups were then formed, and the effect of 8mg/kg of JM-20 was evaluated for 40 days on aging-related behavior, such as spatial memory, novelty recognition memory, ambulatory activity, and anxiety. Subsequently, animals were sacrificed, and the hippocampal region was extracted for redox studies and to assess acetylcholinesterase activity. Results indicated that JM-20 at 8mg/kg reversed damage to spatial working and reference memory, exhibiting performance comparable to untreated young adult animals. Furthermore, JM-20 preserved the enzymatic activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and total sulfhydryl levels in age-related cognitive impairment in mice, indicating a potent protective effect against oxidative events at the brain level. However, only young, healthy animals showed decreased acetylcholinesterase enzyme activity. These findings provide preclinical pharmacological evidence supporting the neuroprotective activity of JM-20, positioning it as a promising therapeutic candidate for treating memory disorders associated with aging.

Optimal levels of sleep, sedentary behaviour, and physical activity needed to support cognitive function in children of the early years.

Sleep, sedentary behaviour, physical activity, and the composition of these movement behaviours across the 24-h day are associated with cognitive function in early years children. This study used a Goldilocks day compositional data analysis approach to identify the optimal duration of sleep, sedentary behaviour, light physical activity, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity associated with desired cognitive function outcomes in early years children. This cross-sectional study included 858 children aged 2.8-5.5 years from the Sleep and Activity Database for the Early Years. 24-h movement behaviours (sleep, sedentary behaviour, light physical activity, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity) were measured using ActiGraph accelerometers. Cognitive function was measured using three tasks from the Early Years Toolbox: visual-spatial working memory, response inhibition, and expressive vocabulary. A Goldilocks day compositional data analysis approach was used in R software to identify the optimal time-use compositions associated with the best 10% of the cognitive function scores. The movement behaviour composition and the relative time spent in sleep and sedentary behaviour but not different intensities of physical activity were significantly associated with working memory (P ≤ 0.01). The movement behaviour composition and relative time spent in sleep, sedentary behaviour, and different intensities of physical activity were not significantly associated with response inhibition or expressive vocabulary (P > 0.2). Therefore, optimal time use was only determined for working memory. Optimal daily durations for working memory were observed with 11:00 (hr:min) of sleep, 5:42 of sedentary behaviour, 5:06 of light physical activity, and 2:12 of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Working memory was the only cognitive function outcome related to the 24-h movement behaviour composition. Optimal sleep for working memory was consistent with current recommended durations, while optimal moderate-to-vigorous physical activity greatly exceeded minimal recommended levels. Optimal sedentary behaviour was longer and light physical activity was shorter than the sample average.

EXPRESS: Revisiting Working Memory Fifty Years after Baddeley and Hitch: A Review of Field-specific Conceptualizations, Use and Misuse, and Paths Forward for Studying Children.

As trained educational and developmental psychologists who study the role of working memory in educational outcomes, we know the various assumptions made about definitions and measurements of this cognitive ability. Considering the popularity of the Baddeley and Hitch working memory model (1974) in these fields, we raise challenges related to measurement, overlap with executive function, and adopting working memory measurement approaches from adult models. We propose that researchers consider how working memory tasks might tap multiple other abilities. This is problematic in the context of child cognitive development and in understanding which factors explain educational outcomes in children. We recommend giving greater attention to the central executive, acknowledging the overlap between the central executive and executive function in study design, and investigating a developmental model in the context of the broader abilities evoked in measurement. These recommendations may provide a fuller understanding of working memory's mechanistic role in children's learning and development and assist in developing reasonable adjustments for specific aspects of working memory for children who struggle.

Executive Function and young children's Cardinality Principle: the mediating role of the Approximate Number System and the moderating role of age

BackgroundExecutive Function and the Approximate Number System are well-established as critical components in developing the Cardinality Principle in young children. However, most existing studies explore the relationship between these variables in isolation without examining whether Approximate Number System mediates the relationship between Executive Function and the Cardinality Principle and the role of age in this. This study aimed to address this gap by investigating the mediating role of the Approximate Number System in the relationship between Executive Function and the Cardinality Principle and the moderating role of age in young children.MethodsThis cross-sectional study was conducted in China from February to June 2024. A total of 203 young children (97 boys and 106 girls, Mean age = 68.93 ± 7.076 months) participated. Participants were assessed using a range of tests: the Day-Night Stroop Task, Digit Recall Task, Dimensional Change Card Sort Task, Panamath Test Software, How Many Task, and Give-N Task to measure Executive Function, Approximate Number System, and Cardinality Principle. Data were analyzed using SPSS 26.0 and PROCESS v4.1 (Model 4) to explore the relationships among Executive Function, the Approximate Number System, and the Cardinality Principle through Pearson correlations, multivariate regression, and mediation analysis with 5000 bootstrap samples.ResultsCorrelation analysis revealed that the Cardinality Principle was significantly and positively correlated with Inhibitory Control, Working Memory, Cognitive Flexibility, Executive Function, and the Approximate Number System. Regression analyses indicated that Executive Function positively predicted young children's Cardinality Principle. Specifically, Working Memory and Cognitive Flexibility were positive predictors of the Cardinality Principle, while Inhibitory Control was not. Mediation analysis results demonstrated that the Approximate Number System mediated the relationships between Inhibitory Control and the Cardinality Principle, Working Memory and the Cardinality Principle, and Cognitive Flexibility and the Cardinality Principle, respectively. In addition, the study found that young children's age negatively moderated the relationship between the Approximate Number System and the Cardinality Principle.ConclusionsThe study emphasizes that in developing young children's Cardinality Principle, emphasis should be placed on improving their Executive Function and Approximate Number System while considering the age differences of young children and developing appropriate educational methods for different age groups.

The impact of a prebiotic-rich diet and/or probiotic supplements on human cognition: secondary outcomes from the ‘gut feelings’ randomised controlled trial

ABSTRACT Background Emerging evidence indicates that gut microbiota-targeted interventions may lead to improvements in cognition. We assessed whether a prebiotic-rich dietary intervention, probiotic supplement, or synbiotic combination of both would improve human cognition, as part of the ‘Gut Feelings’ trial. Methods An 8-week, 2 × 2 factorial randomised controlled trial was conducted on 118 adults with low mood and potential for dietary improvement. Treatment arms: (1) probiotic supplement and diet-as-usual (probiotic group); (2) high-prebiotic diet and placebo supplement (prebiotic diet group); (3) probiotic supplement and high-prebiotic diet (synbiotic group); and (4) placebo supplement and diet-as-usual (placebo group). At baseline and 8-weeks, the Cogstate Brief Battery was administered, testing processing speed, attention, visual learning, and working memory. Data were analysed using Bayesian linear regression. Results We found weak evidence that the probiotic improved working memory (Cohen’s d = −0.32, 95% CI: –0.67, 0.03; posterior probability [post. prob] of benefit: 96%). For the other treatments, there was little or no evidence of cognitive improvement. We found weak evidence that the prebiotic diet impaired processing speed (d = 0.25, 95% CI: –0.02, 0.51; post. prob of harm: 97%). There was little indication of a synergistic interaction between the probiotic and prebiotic diet. Conclusion We found suggestive evidence of a probiotic-induced improvement in working memory, and prebiotic-induced impairment in processing speed. However, the evidence remains inconclusive regarding any cognitive benefit or harm induced by the probiotic, prebiotic diet, or synbiotic treatments. Larger intervention studies are recommended, with inclusion of neuroimaging or electrophysiology measures. Trial Registration: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ACTRN12617000795392; registered 31 May 2017).

Neural dynamics of shifting attention between perception and working-memory contents

In everyday tasks, our focus of attention shifts seamlessly between contents in the sensory environment and internal memory representations. Yet, research has mainly considered external and internal attention in isolation. We used magnetoencephalography to compare the neural dynamics of shifting attention to visual contents within vs. between the external and internal domains. Participants performed a combined perception and working-memory task in which two sequential cues guided attention to upcoming (external) or memorized (internal) sensory information. Critically, the second cue could redirect attention to visual content within the same or alternative domain as the first cue. Multivariate decoding unveiled distinct patterns of human brain activity when shifting attention within vs. between domains. Brain activity distinguishing within- from between-domain shifts was broadly distributed and highly dynamic. Intriguingly, crossing domains did not invoke an additional stage prior to shifting attention. Alpha lateralization, a canonical marker of shifting spatial attention, showed no delay when cues redirected attention to the same vs. alternative domain. Instead, evidence suggested that neural states associated with a given domain linger and influence subsequent shifts of attention within vs. between domains. Our findings provide critical insights into the neural dynamics that govern attentional shifts between perception and working memory.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Cognitive Impairment in Schizophrenia: The Role of Inflammation.

The complex immune-brain interactions and the regulatory role of mitochondria in the immune response suggest that mitochondrial damage reported in schizophrenia (SZ) may be related to abnormalities observed in immune and brain functions. Mitochondrial DNA copy number (mtDNA CN), a biomarker of mitochondrial function, was assessed in peripheral blood leukocytes (PBLs) of 121 healthy individuals and 118 SZ patients before and after 8 weeks of antipsychotic treatment, and a meta-analysis related to blood mtDNA CN was conducted. Plasma C-reactive protein (CRP) levels in SZ patients were obtained from the medical record system. Spearman correlation analysis and hierarchical linear regression were used to analyze the relationships among mtDNA CN, CRP levels, and cognitive function. A mediation model was constructed using the PROCESS program. Our results revealed the decreased mtDNA CN in PBLs from SZ patients (P = .05). The meta-analysis supported the decreased blood mtDNA CN in SZ patients (P < .01). The mtDNA CN in PBL was positively correlated with working memory (P = .02) and negatively correlated with plasma CRP levels (P = .039). Furthermore, a lower mtDNA CN in PBL in SZ patients was a significant predictor of worse working memory (P = .006). CRP acted as a mediator with an 8.0% effect. This study revealed an association between peripheral mitochondrial dysfunction and cognitive impairment in SZ, with inflammation acting as a mediating effect. Therefore, mitochondrial dysfunction might provide novel targets for new treatments for cognitive impairment in SZ.

The influence of Hasidism in the poetic oeuvre of Szilárd Borbély

AbstractThe paper examines the influence of the literature of Hasidism on the oeuvre of contemporary Hungarian poet Szilárd Borbély (1963–1914). It analyzes the workings of regional cultural memory and the memory of the exterminated rural Jewish population, as well as of the former representatives of Hasidism in Hungary in Borbély's works. It also examines the poetics of his collection of poems Funereal Splendour and, more specifically, the fusion of Christian and Jewish elements, in which the principle of bricolage prevails, creating a specific, culturally hybrid poetic language. The most important example of this hybridization is the appearance of the messianic motif in the oeuvre, to which this study devotes special attention. Finally, the use of a Hasidic story-type in two of Borbély's works is also discussed.

Can human brain connectivity explain verbal working memory?

ABSTRACT The ability of humans to store spoken words in verbal working memory and build extensive vocabularies is believed to stem from evolutionary changes in cortical connectivity across primate species. However, the underlying neurobiological mechanisms remain unclear. Why can humans acquire vast vocabularies, while non-human primates cannot? This study addresses this question using brain-constrained neural networks that realize between-species differences in cortical connectivity. It investigates how these structural differences support the formation of neural representations for spoken words and the emergence of verbal working memory, crucial for human vocabulary building. We develop comparative models of frontotemporal and occipital cortices, reflecting human and non-human primate neuroanatomy. Using meanfield and spiking neural networks, we simulate auditory word recognition and examine verbal working memory function. The “human models”, characterized by denser inter-area connectivity in core language areas, produced larger cell assemblies than the “monkey models”, with specific topographies reflecting semantic properties of the represented words. Crucially, longer-lasting reverberant neural activity was observed in human versus monkey architectures, compatible with robust verbal working memory, a necessary condition for vocabulary building. Our findings offer insights into the structural basis of human-specific symbol learning and verbal working memory, shedding light on humans’ unique capacity for large vocabulary acquisition.

Examining Working Memory Training for Healthy Adults—A Second-Order Meta-Analysis

Background: Enhancing working memory performance in cognitively and physically healthy individuals is a popular area of research. The results from a large number of studies have now been summarized in multiple meta-analyses. In these reviews, various training methods have been examined, including mindfulness training, adaptive working memory training, physical activity training, and video game training, to examine whether working memory capacity can be improved. This report aggregated the results of these meta-analyses using second-order meta-analytic approaches to ascertain the extent to which working memory functioning can be enhanced in healthy adults. Methods: A total of six meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials that compared working memory interventions to a control group were included in the analyses. These studies were identified after systematically searching three electronic databases: APA PsycInfo, ERIC and Medline. Collectively, the meta-analyses investigated the effects of cognitive programs, mindfulness, video games and physical activity on working memory. Only meta-analyses undertaken with healthy adults aged between 18 and 55 years were included in the report. Results: The results revealed an average improvement in working memory across the included studies compared to the control groups. The findings indicated a small yet significant enhancement in working memory, with a standardized mean difference of 0.335 (95% CI [0.223; 0.447], p &lt; .001). Further analysis tests for superiority effects between the different working memory training programs revealed no significant differences between intervention effect sizes. Conclusion: Based on the findings, it can be concluded that the working memory capacity of healthy adults can be improved through training. However, the effect size is small, so the utility of this type of training in real-life improvements in cognition may be minimal. The evidence does not indicate that one type of working memory training is superior to another.

Investigating the effect of cognitive load on the intentionality bias.

According to Rosset's dual-process model of intention attribution, our judgements of intentionality can be guided either by an automatic process leading to intentional explanations of behaviour or by a higher-level and cognitively more demanding process enabling unintentional explanations of behaviour. Based on this model, under conditions of compromised cognitive capacity, individuals should judge more behaviour to be intentional rather than unintentional. This prediction was tested in one lab-based experiment and one online experiment. Specifically, we investigated whether increased working memory load would lead to higher intentionality endorsement of ambiguous action when controlling for individual differences in working memory. Results of both experiments indicated no effect of working memory load on intentionality endorsement. The implications of these results for the dual-process model of intention attribution are discussed.

Abstract 4136180: Sex Differences in Cognition Related to Cerebral Small Vessel Disease Associated with Younger Age ofHypertension Diagnosis

Background: There are sex differences in the effect of age at onset (AO) of hypertension onbrain structural changes later in life. This may differentially affect long-term cognition through cerebral smallvessel disease (CSVD) in females and males. However, whether and how the association between age ofhypertension diagnosis contributes to sex differences in cognitive decline related to CVSD later in life remainsunclear. Objective: Our objective was to examine sex differences in cognition in relation to brain structural changesexacerbated by CSVD caused by younger AO of hypertension. Methods: We used data from the UK Biobank to select participants with a known age of hypertensiondiagnosis who also had neuropsychological test scores for cognitive functions affected by CSVD i.e., memoryand executive function (n= 6095). We stratified data by sex and AO at baseline (2006-2010). Controlparticipants who did not have hypertension were chosen at random using propensity score matching. Principalcomponents analysis (PCA) was used to reduce the number of CSVD related cognitive function tests(measured at 2014 follow-up). We selected participants &gt;65 years of age at the time of cognitive function teststo determine cognitive function later in life. This was followed by a sex disaggregated regression analysis totest for the effect of AO on cognitive functions identified from the PCA in females and males. Results: Our main outcomes were cognitive function tests in the domains of memory (working and visual-spatial) and executive function/processing speed. When compared to normotensive controls, cognitiveoutcomes differed by sex and age of hypertension diagnosis. Whereas females diagnosed at middle age (45-54 years) had worse outcomes in the working memory domain compared to controls, males diagnosed at olderage (&gt;65 years) had worse outcomes compared to controls. Only females diagnosed with hypertension ateither younger age (&lt; 35 years) or older age (&gt;65 years) had worse outcomes in the executive visualdeclarative memory domain. We did not see any differences in the processing speed/executive functiondomain in either males or females. Conclusions: This study demonstrates distinctive characteristics of CSVD-related cognitive decline in malesand females based on the age of hypertension onset. Therefore, CSVD is a critical pathophysiologicalmechanism for sex differences in cognitive decline and may aid in identification of novel sex-specific therapy.

Complement and microglia activation mediate stress-induced synapse loss in layer 2/3 of the medial prefrontal cortex in male mice.

Spatially heterogeneous synapse loss is a characteristic of many psychiatric and neurological disorders, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. Here, we show that spatially-restricted complement activation mediates stress-induced heterogeneous microglia activation and synapse loss localized to the upper layers of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) in male mice. Single cell RNA sequencing also reveals a stress-associated microglia state marked by high expression of the apolipoprotein E gene (Apoehigh) localized to the upper layers of the mPFC. Mice lacking complement component C3 are protected from stress-induced layer-specific synapse loss, and the Apoehigh microglia population is markedly reduced in the mPFC of these mice. Furthermore, C3 knockout mice are also resilient to stress-induced anhedonia and working memory behavioral deficits. Our findings suggest that region-specific complement and microglia activation can contribute to the disease-specific spatially restricted patterns of synapse loss and clinical symptoms found in many brain diseases.

Effectiveness of an Executive Functions Parental Program in ADHD Children

Attention/Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most prevalent disorders in the child population. Evidence suggests that children with this disorder usually present impairments in executive functions (EF). This study aims to evaluate the effects of a home-based intervention applied by parents (Flii, A Space Adventure) on the EF of Brazilian children with ADHD. Sixteen children with ADHD aged 7 to 12 participated in this study. A battery of neuropsychological tests and questionnaires was applied as assessment. Afterwards, children’ received Flii programa applied at home by the parents. A relevant improvement in visuospatial working memory in the Flii group after the intervention (T2) compared to the control group. The results of the intragroup analyzes suggest that the intervention group had gains in processing speed, cognitive flexibility, verbal and visuospatial working memory. These results suggest that Flii was effective in promoting some changes in the children’ executive functioning.

Impact of Non-Pharmacological Cognitive Interventions on Real-World Daily Function in Children With Cancer: A Systematic Review.

Childhood cancer survivors (CCS) frequently experience cognitive challenges, which impact their ability to participate in functional activities. This systematic review examines the effects of nonpharmacological cognitive interventions on functional outcomes (e.g., activities of daily living). We systematically searched eight databases (e.g., PubMed, EMBASE) from 2012 to 2023. Two team members independently screened articles and extracted article, intervention, sample characteristics, and outcome data. We assessed intervention reporting with the Template for Intervention Description and Replication. Fourteen studies met inclusion criteria, representing 12 unique trials. Four of the six trials evaluating Cogmed, a computerized working memory training program, demonstrated functional benefits; small to large effects were observed for academic achievement (Cohen's d = 0.28-0.87) and decreased inattention in daily life (d = -0.36 and -0.98). Other interventions included exergaming, math or reading interventions, occupational therapy, and neurofeedback. Less than half of studies reported on intervention personalization (n = 5), fidelity assessment (n = 4), or cost (n = 1). Study heterogeneity limited our ability to meta-analyze results for functional outcomes. Limited evidence and gaps in quality of intervention reporting are barriers to addressing the cognitive challenges of CCS. Standardizing functional outcome measurement, identifying effective interventions, and improving the quality of intervention reporting could accelerate the translation of intervention research to clinical practice.

Working memory multicomponent model outcomes in individuals with traumatic brain injury: Critical review and meta-analysis.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) often leads to cognitive impairments, particularly regarding working memory (WM). This meta-analysis aims to examine the impact of TBI on WM, taking into account moderating factors which has received little attention in previous research, such as severity of injury, the different domains of Baddeley's multi-component model, and the interaction between these two factors, as well as the interaction with other domains of executive functions. Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses guidelines, a systematic review and meta-analysis searched Google Scholar, PubMed, and PsycNET for studies with objective WM measures. Multiple meta-analyses were performed to compare the effects of TBI severity on different WM components. Twenty-four English, peer-reviewed articles, mostly cross-sectional were included. TBI significantly impairs general WM and all Baddeley's model components, most notably the Central Executive (d' = 0.74). Severity categories, mild-moderate and moderate-severe, were identified. Impairment was found across severities, with "moderate-severe" demonstrating the largest effect size (d' = 0.81). Individuals with moderate-severe TBI showed greater impairments in the Central Executive and Episodic Buffer compared to those with mild-moderate injury, whereas no such differences were found for the Phonological Loop and Visuospatial Sketchpad. These findings enhance our understanding of WM deficits in varying severities of TBI, highlighting the importance of assessing and treating WM in clinical practice and intervention planning.