Working Conditions Of Women Research Articles

Interconnecting Work and Family: Race and Class Differences in Women's Work Status and Attitudes

SHIFTING WORK-FAMILY REALITIES The interdisciplinary work-family field has grown apace in recent years, as scholars, writers, and policy makers have all focused renewed attention on women's status and attitudes. Much of this resurgence, however, has addressed the behaviors and attitudes of middle- to upper-class white women and their decision to or parent. But this narrow focus limits our research and theorizing and overlooks how women respond in creative ways by interconnecting (or weaving together) their and family lives (Garey 1999, 14). Although this work-family reality is relatively more recent for middle- to upper-class white women, it is a much older reality for many working-class or poor women and women of color. In this essay, I broaden the research focus to a more diverse group of women. My goal is to understand how different women respond to new work-family realities.1 STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN THE WORK-FAMILY LANDSCAPE New work-family realities are best reflected in the structural mismatch between changed family demographics and partially changed customs, norms, and organizational practices (Moen and Roehling 2005; Roos, Trigg, and Hartman 2006, 201- 2). Women's dramatic entry into the labor force, and changes in their pattern of participation, now mean that they more closely resemble men in their labor force participation. Blau and Kahn's (2005, 42) analysis of Current Population Survey data reveals that between 1980 and 2000 women's status became less sensitive to both their own and their husband's wages, and they now supply their labor much as men do. Increased labor force participation has been most stark among married women and women with children, those most subject to work-family conflict. Dualearner families are now the most common household type: by 2000, 62 percent of married couples were dual earners, compared with 44 percent in 1975 (Costello, Wight, and Stone 2003, 203). Since 1970 women have also made significant inroads into more demanding male professional and managerial occupations (Reskin and Roos 1990). Careers are less likely to unfold in a predictable progression of jobs within single organizations, and workers move frequently across firms in boundaryless careers. Both men and women compete as ideal workers in an increasingly global market, scheduled around a 24/7 economy. The resulting time bind negatively affects workers, especially those with higher education and in time-intensive professional and managerial jobs (Jacobs and Gerson 2000). Entry into professional and managerial occupations is more likely to characterize the changing prospects of white women, even though black middle-class women preceded their white counterparts into the labor market by many years (Landry 2000, 91). BEYOND SEPARATE SPHERES The popular and scholarly literatures rely on dichotomous language to describe and family. Garey (1999, 8) faults researchers for relying on separate spheres terminology to describe women as either work-committed or domestically oriented (e.g., Gerson 1985), or as women who to or work to live (e.g., Mason 1988). More recent (e.g., BlairLoy 2003) theorizes the existence of a devotion to schema, where greedy workplace demand all our time and commitment, and a devotion to family schema, where intensive mothering is a woman's major commitment, regardless of her role. Blair-Loy argues that these cultural schemas powerfully shape women's attitudes and behaviors and are embedded in the beliefs of their husbands, the practices of employers, and workplace institutions more generally. In this view, women are seen as committed to either or family, a cultural divide that emerges from a malebreadwinner-female-caregiver gender ideology that creates naturalized boundaries that working women must cross (Gazso 2004, 465). The changing landscape of the American (now global) labor market makes the choice between and family largely the prerogative of the privileged (Johnson, 2002) and diverts our attention from the restructured realities of women's lives. …

First-trimester working conditions and birthweight: a prospective cohort study.

We investigated the relationship between women's first-trimester working conditions and infant birthweight. Pregnant women (N = 8266) participating in the Amsterdam Born Children and Their Development study completed a questionnaire gathering information on employment and working conditions. After exclusions, 7135 women remained in our analyses. Low birthweight and delivery of a small-for-gestational-age (SGA) infant were the main outcome measures. After adjustment, a workweek of 32 hours or more (mean birthweight decrease of 43 g) and high job strain (mean birthweight decrease of 72 g) were significantly associated with birthweight. Only high job strain increased the risk of delivering an SGA infant (odds ratio [OR] = 1.5; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.1, 2.2). After adjustment, the combination of high job strain and a long workweek resulted in the largest birthweight reduction (150 g) and the highest risk of delivering an SGA infant (OR = 2.0; 95% CI = 1.2, 3.2). High levels of job strain during early pregnancy are associated with reduced birthweight and an increased risk of delivering an SGA infant, particularly if mothers work 32 or more hours per week.

The prevalence of work-related stress, and its association with self-perceived health and sick-leave, in a population of employed Swedish women

BackgroundWomen report more occupational ill-health and are more sick-listed than men. Exploration of women's working conditions would therefore seem to be valuable. In this study we investigated the prevalence of work-related stress and its association with self-perceived health and sick-leave in a population of employed, working Swedish women.MethodsThis cross-sectional population study comprised 424 employed, working women who answered questionnaires on work-related stress, self-perceived health and sick-leave. The odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) was calculated in order to analyse the association between the exposure variables of work-related stress and outcome variables of ill-health symptoms, self-rated health and sick-leave.ResultsTen percent of the group reported high perceived stress owing to indistinct organisation and conflicts, and 25% high perceived stress owing to individual demands and commitment. Twenty-two percent reported low influence at work and 33% reported work interference with leisure time. All categories of overall work-related stress were significantly associated with increased odds of high level of illness symptoms, with the highest OR for high perceived stress owing to indistinct organisation and conflicts and high perceived stress owing to individual demands and commitment with an OR of 3.17 (CI = 1.51–6.62) and 4.53 (CI = 2.71–7.56) respectively. High perceived stress owing to indistinct organisation and conflicts and low influence at work were significantly associated with sick-leave with an OR of 3.85 (CI = 1.59–9.30) and 2.54 (CI = 1.17–5.48) respectively.ConclusionThis study showed an association between, on the one hand, work-related stress, and on the other hand, illness symptoms and sick-leave. Distinguishing between the occurrence of negative work characteristics, and the immediate perception of stress because of these, resulted in a broad view of women's working conditions and expanded knowledge of work-related stress in women.

Wage Productivity and Wage Income Differential in Labor Market: Evidence from RMG Sector in Bangladesh

Labor Market outcomes in Bangladesh at different stages of industrialization need not be similar as behavioral rationality of economic agents depends on the market context. This paper examines the issues related to wage income differentials in RMG sector. In fact wage determination behavior during the last two decades did not follow one of the basic premises in the theory of labor market in economics. In general, employment and wage determined by the marginal productivity of labor in value term. Labor Market outcomes in Bangladesh at different stages of industrialization need not be similar as behavioral rationality of economic agents depends on the market context. Women are increasingly becoming visible in the productive labor force in Bangladesh. The surplus labor is expected to take in the family farms in the rural areas and in other informal enterprise. During the last two decades, rapid changes had taken place in this scenario. Women’s employment in garment factories is one of these changes. The garment sector is rapidly rising in the country since the 1980’s. The paper is based survey findings conducted among the woman’s workers of RMG industries located at Dhaka and Narayangong – the second largest hub of RMG factories in Bangladesh. The study was conducted on 200 female garment workers of 20 garment industries. This paper investigates the existing labor market and status of women workers in the context of wage discrimination based on gender, obstacles of work place environment in and outside of the industries. The study also analyzes the socio economic status of the women workers in the export-oriented industries like Ready Made Garments. In terms of social and economic context, that women’s working condition is not favorable for the work place. The study shows that distribution of labor force by two main sector agriculture and non-agriculture shows that during the period of 1990-91 to 1999-2000 there has been a small decline in the share of agriculture in total employment. It should be pointed out that the decline in the share of agriculture is more or less continuous for male labor force. Women contributed to 37.9 percent and 39.3 percent of employment in the manufacturing sector in 2000 and 2003 respectively. The garment sector is dependent on female labor largely because underemployment is high among women. In the urban area, the shares of women and man skilled are 12 percent and 35 percent respectively. Empirical result also shows that both the male and female labor force participation is higher in Bangladesh compare to the South Asian Countries.

Marital Violence and Women's Employment and Property Status: Evidence from North Indian Villages

Dominant development policy approaches recommend women's employment on the grounds that it facilitates their empowerment, which in turn is believed to be instrumental in enhancing women's well-being. However, empirical work on the relationship between women's employment status and their well-being as measured by freedom from marital violence yields an ambiguous picture. Motivated by this ambiguity, this paper draws on testimonies of men and women and data gathered from rural Uttar Pradesh, to examine the effect of women's employment and asset status as measured by their participation in paid work and their ownership of property, respectively, on spousal violence. Unlike the existing literature, we treat women's work status and violence as simultaneously determined and find that women's engagement in paid work and ownership of property, are associated with sharp reductions in marital violence.

Precarious Existence and Deteriorating work Conditions for Women in India: Implications for Health

The Indian economy has experienced economic growth post-1991 but has demonstrated an inability to generate adequate employment and even less of “quality” employment for much of its labor force. This article is based on data collected from conversations with women workers on the theme of “women, work and health,” with an emphasis on, one, task allotment and working conditions in the household; and two, those related to conditions of work at the worksite and the gendered experience of such work. While narratives cannot establish causality between particular work environments and related adverse outcomes, they nevertheless provide crucial insights into what is likely to be blighting these women's lives. Advocates of women's work outside their home need to pay attention to both their remuneration for work and the costs to their health and well-being of such employment, so that policies aimed at employment generation also are sensitive to the adverse outcomes of such employment.

Precarious Existence and Deteriorating Work Conditions for Women in India: Implications for Health

The Indian economy has experienced economic growth post-1991 but has demonstrated an inability to generate adequate employment and even less of "quality" employment for much of its labor force. This article is based on data collected from conversations with women workers on the theme of "women, work and health," with an emphasis on, one, task allotment and working conditions in the household; and two, those related to conditions of work at the worksite and the gendered experience of such work. While narratives cannot establish causality between particular work environments and related adverse outcomes, they nevertheless provide crucial insights into what is likely to be blighting these women's lives. Advocates of women's work outside their home need to pay attention to both their remuneration for work and the costs to their health and well-being of such employment, so that policies aimed at employment generation also are sensitive to the adverse outcomes of such employment.

Health and working conditions of pregnant women working inside and outside the home in Mexico City.

BackgroundTo explore differences related to health and working conditions by comparing socio-demographic parameters, reproductive and prenatal care characteristics and working conditions among pregnant women who are employed outside the home (extra-domestic) while still performing a domestic workload versus those who perform exclusively domestic work in the home (intra-domestic).MethodsA cross-sectional study was carried out at Family Medicine Unit N 31 of the Mexican Institute of Social Security (IMSS) in Mexico City between April and July 2003. Interviews were conducted with 537 pregnant women engaged in either extra-domestic work plus intra-domestic tasks, or those performing strictly intra-domestic work. Information was obtained regarding their demographic status, prenatal care, reproductive, work characteristics, and health during pregnancy.ResultsOne hundred ninety-six (36.5%) of the interviewed women had paid jobs outside the home in addition to domestic tasks, while three hundred forty-one (63.5 %) engaged in exclusively intra-domestic occupations. Of the women with paid jobs, 78.6% worked as clerks. Among domestic tasks, we found that the greatest workload was associated with washing of clothes, and our micro-ergonomic analysis revealed that women who worked strictly inside the home had a higher domestic workload versus employed women (69.2 vs. 44.9%). When we analyzed the effect of work on health during pregnancy, we observed that women who worked strictly inside the home were at a higher risk for musculoskeletal and genitourinary symptoms than those employed outside the home.ConclusionThese findings suggest that the effect of intra-domestic work should not be ignored when considering women's health during pregnancy, and that greater attention should be paid to women's working conditions during intra and extra-domestic work.

What Parents of Near‐Term Infants Need to Know

Despite its established benefits, breastfeeding is no longer a norm in many communities. Multifactorial determinants of breastfeeding need supportive measures at many levels, from legal and policy directives to social attitudes and values, women's work and employment conditions, and health-care services to enable women to breastfeed. When relevant interventions are delivered adequately, breastfeeding practices are responsive and can improve rapidly. The best outcomes are achieved when interventions are implemented concurrently through several channels. The marketing of breastmilk substitutes negatively affects breastfeeding: global sales in 2014 of US$44·8 billion show the industry's large, competitive claim on infant feeding. Not breastfeeding is associated with lower intelligence and economic losses of about $302 billion annually or 0·49% of world gross national income. Breastfeeding provides short-term and long-term health and economic and environmental advantages to children, women, and society. To realise these gains, political support and financial investment are needed to protect, promote, and support breastfeeding.

Masked Symptoms: Mid-life Women, Health, and Work

Data from the Canadian Labour Force Survey (1997) reveal that relatively few mid-life women offer ill health as a reason for leaving their job or downshifting to part-time employment, implying that the role of ill health may be inconsequential in effecting changing patterns in mid-life women's labour force activity. In contrast, interviews with 30 mid-life women (aged 40 to 54 years) illustrate that, although they do not offer illness as their main reason for leaving their job or working part-time, health is a determining factor. This research also maps the complex relationship between work and ill health, showing that stressful working conditions (due to funding cuts and policy changes) affected the mental and physical health of this group of mid-life women, which, in turn, influenced their decision to change their labour force activity. The author concludes that policy makers must recognize that ill health may be under-reported among mid-life women in large surveys and that research is needed that specifically examines women's working conditions as they relate to health. Such research should not be based solely on large surveys but must also include qualitative studies that capture women's experiences.

Domestic violence: The Lebanese experience

To estimate the prevalence of domestic violence among women presenting to primary health care facilities in Lebanon; to identify presenting symptoms and responses to varied forms of violence; and to examine variables associated with domestic violence. A cross-sectional survey of all women presenting to four primary health care centres in different geographic areas of Lebanon from September 2002 to October 2002. A questionnaire was administered in interview format. The following information was collected from participants: demographic characteristics, perceived health status, prior exposure and responses to domestic violence, and characteristics of the perpetrators. Of the 1418 participants, 494 (35%) reported experiencing domestic violence and 307 (22%) had family members who had been exposed to domestic violence. Among the women exposed to violence, verbal abuse or insult was most common (88%) followed by physical violence (66%); 57% reported their experiences to family, friends or authorities, whereas the remainder kept silent. Women who were exposed to domestic violence had higher frequencies of reported physical symptoms than those who were not exposed. Generally, the perpetrators were spouses who had demographic backgrounds comparable to their wives. Multiple regression analyses showed that women's education levels, work status, health status, and familial violence predicted domestic violence. Women readily talk about their abuse when asked. The rate of domestic violence is high among Lebanese women and is a significant health issue. Additional research is needed to better understand the extent of the problem and to develop more effective reporting methods.

Reestruturação produtiva e saúde no setor metalúrgico: a percepção das trabalhadoras

Este artigo discute a nova divisão sexual do trabalho que resulta do processo de reestruturação produtiva na indústria metal-mecânica, enfatizando seus impactos sobre as condições de trabalho e de saúde das mulheres trabalhadoras. A pesquisa de natureza qualitativa, que foi realizada em plantas de diferentes tamanhos nos setores de autopeças e eletroeletrônico, no ABC paulista e em Campinas, examinou as novas formas do trabalho feminino como resultado da introdução de novas práticas gerenciais e de inovações tecnológicas. Foram também investigadas as percepções das trabalhadoras sobre as mudanças no seu trabalho e nas suas condições de saúde, com o propósito de compreender a relação entre novas formas de organização do processo de trabalho e o aprofundamento do sofrimento psicofísico no trabalho. Concluiu-se que o processo de reestruturação das empresas estudadas tem um claro bias de gênero na medida em que os lugares ocupados pelas mulheres na nova divisão do trabalho contribuem para aumentar a deterioração das suas condições de trabalho. Nas fábricas pesquisadas as trabalhadoras estão mais concentradas nos postos com salários menores, sob condições de trabalho ruins e sem proteção contra os riscos derivados das atividades desempenhadas. O artigo mostra que há uma nítida relação entre as mudanças nas condições de trabalho das mulheres e o crescimento de problemas de saúde e de doenças ocupacionais (como as LER e o estresse, entre outras).

BPW Foundation releases 101 facts on the status of workingwomen

BPW Foundation releases 101 facts on the status of workingwomen

Women with fibromyalgia: Work and rehabilitation

Purpose. To explore disability in women with fibromyalgia with a focus on their work situation.Method. Review of literature on work status of women with fibromyalgia.Results. Major differences exist between studies in reported disability and in the percentages of women working. Limitations caused by pain, fatigue, decreased muscle strength, and endurance influence work capacity. However, 34 – 77% of the women work. Individual adjustments in the work situation are reported. When the women find a level that matches their ability, they continue to work and find satisfaction in their work role. Many factors besides degree of impairment or disability influence whether clients with longstanding pain can remain in their work role or return to work after sickness leave.Conclusion. The total life situation, other commitments, type of work tasks, the ability to influence the work situation, and the physical and psychosocial work environment are important factors in determining whether a person can remain in a work role. More knowledge is needed about how to adjust work conditions for people with partial work ability to the benefit of society and the individual.

The New Deal and Beyond: Social Welfare in the South since 1930

This collection of ten original studies covers a wide range of issues related to the regional distinctiveness of welfare provision in the South and the development of the larger federal welfare state. The studies examine New Deal and Great Society programs from the Works Progress Administration and Civilian Conservation Corps to Social Security and Medicare. In addition, they draw attention to such private-sector organizations as the Salvation Army and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Some studies look at the degree of federal responsiveness to, or actual engagement with, recipients of assistance. One such study examines the dynamics between the New Deal bureaucracy, poor women who worked in WPA-organized sewing rooms in Atlanta, and local political activists concerned about the women's working conditions. The power of race and racism to shape the delivery of social services in the region, as well as the strong connections between social welfare and civil rights, is a concern common to many studies. One study shows how linking the availability of federal Medicare funds to racial equality helped end segregation in southern hospitals. Other studies focus on topics ranging from the pioneering North Carolina Fund, a state program that shaped Great Society initiatives, to the public health nurses and home economists of the Farm Security Administration, to Georgia governor Eugene Talmadge's maneuverings against the Federal Emergency Relief Administration. The New Deal and Beyond is filled with many new insights into initiating and maintaining social programs in the South, a region whose welfare history is key to understanding the larger story of the American welfare state.

Women Workers in the Brick Kiln Industry in Haryana, India

A vast majority of the country’s workforce is in the unorganised sector, and consequently unprotected. In the absence of economic opportunities where they live, many migrate across the states of India to seek casual employment. Brick production depends almost entirely on migrant workers, half of whom are women. This paper looks into the socio-economic status of women workers in the brick industry of Haryana and underlines the fact that these workers have a very tough life. While bearing and rearing children remains their primary responsibility, they are invariably involved in economic activities for survival, thus playing roles in both production and reproduction.

Symptom reporting and self-rated health among women in mid-life: The role of work characteristics and family responsibilities

This study investigated how socioeconomic factors and psychosocial conditions are related to self-reported health among 43-year-old women representing the general Swedish population (N = 569). Odds ratios and multiple logistic regression analyses were used for associations and effect modification, adjusted for symptom reporting in adolescence. Poor self-reported health was predicted by low income, financial worries, and job strain, as well as combined exposure to a high level of unpaid household work and job strain (double burden). In conclusion, poor psychosocial conditions related to working life, as well as to the combined impact of paid and unpaid work were revealed to be risk factors for poor self-reported health among middle-aged women. These results highlight the need for improving women's work conditions, as well as designing family policies that promote a better sharing of unpaid household tasks and responsibilities between spouses.

Brasil Mulher e Nós Mulheres: origens da imprensa feminista brasileira

Este artigo apresenta algumas reflexões sobre a imprensa feminista alternativa que surgiu no Estado de São Paulo, Brasil, na segunda metade dos anos 1970. Essa imprensa se tornou um espaço de expressão de uma linha política intimamente vinculada ao despertar das mulheres para as idéias feministas do período posterior à luta armada contra a ditadura no Brasil. Os jornais Brasil Mulher e Nós Mulheres retrataram, em seus artigos e editoriais, a luta pela anistia, pelas creches e pelas liberdades democráticas - todos símbolos da oposição contra o regime no período da ditadura militar. Além disso, eles incluíam matérias específicas, tais como violência doméstica, condições de trabalho das mulheres, direitos reprodutivos, aborto e sexualidade. Do ponto de vista do movimento popular e das organizações de mulheres, essa imprensa constitui, sem sombra de dúvida, uma fonte importante e ainda inexplorada para compreender o período considerado.

Implications of women's work for child nutritional status in sub-Saharan Africa: a case study of Nigeria

The study examines the relationships between women's work and child nutritional status (stunting and wasting) of 5331 Nigerian children aged 0–59 months, using data from the 1990 Nigerian Demographic and Health Survey. In defining women's work, the study considers whether women earned cash from their work and carried their children to work in order to assess the importance of childcare and income, which are the principal pathways through which women's work affects child nutritional status. The study also examines infants and children differently in order to assess the influence of child's age on nutritional status. The results reveal that wasting among infants increased when mothers did not take them to work. Furthermore, mothers’ work reduced stunting in their children, but the expected positive effect of earning cash from work on childhood nutrition was less visible from the results. Other results from the study revealed that during infancy, having recent episodes of diarrhea or shorter breast-feeding duration increased wasting. Additionally, wasting was lower during infancy for children in households with pit toilets and children with Christian mothers. For infants, immunization reduced stunting, but longer duration of breast-feeding, being a higher parity child, being in households with pit toilets increased stunting. During childhood, higher birth weight, immunization, and having a Christian mother reduced stunting and wasting. Children in wealthy households are less likely to be stunted, while mother's education and being a higher parity child increased stunting. Also during childhood, having a Christian mother reduced wasting while recent episodes of fever increased wasting.

Do common symptoms in women predict long spells of sickness absence? A prospective community-based study on Swedish women 40 to 50 years of age

Aims: To investigate whether a high level of commonly experienced physical and mental symptoms could predict long spells of sickness absence in Swedish women and, further, to investigate the causal pattern of socioeconomic and psychosocial factors in relation to long spells of sickness absence. Methods: A questionnaire containing items on socioeconomic and psychosocial variables was sent to a random population of women, 40 to 50 years of age, living in a rural Swedish community. The response rate was 81.7% (397 women). Data on long spells of sickness absence (> 14 days) for the year following the baseline survey were obtained from the social insurance office. Odds ratios (OR) were used to estimate bivariate associations. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to test for confounding and effect modification. Results: Women suffering from a high level of common symptoms were at risk of subsequent long spells of sickness absence, OR = 3.39 (1.86-6.17). High demands at work and an active job position (i.e. the combination of high demands and a high degree of job control) were both associated with long spells of sickness absence, OR = 2.16 (1.12-4.17) and OR=1.92 (1.01-3.67). The combined exposure (high level of common symptoms and an active job position) increased the odds for long spells of sickness absence (OR = 9.13; 3.39-24.58) with synergy noted. Conclusions: The finding that women with common symptoms are at risk of future sickness absence is of particular importance in a primary health care setting. The finding that women in active job positions had a higher risk of sickness absence might be an effect of modern working conditions for women.