Work Sampling Technique Research Articles

A comparison of activities undertaken by enrolled and registered nurses on medical wards in Australia: An observational study

Background The past decade has seen increasing patient acuity and shortening lengths of stays in acute care hospitals, which has implications for how nursing staff organise and provide care to patients. Objective The aim of this study was to describe the activities undertaken by enrolled nurses (ENs) and registered nurses (RNs) on acute medical wards in two Australian hospitals. Design This study used structured observation, employing a work sampling technique, to identify the activities undertaken by nursing staff in four wards in two hospitals. Nursing staff were observed for two weeks. The data collection instrument identified 25 activities grouped into four categories, direct patient care, indirect care, unit related activities and personal activities. Setting Two hospitals in Queensland, Australia. Results A total of 114 nursing staff were observed undertaking 14,528 activities during 482 h of data collection. In total, 6870 (47.3%) indirect, 4826 (33.2%) direct, 1960 (13.5%) personal and 872 (6.0%) unit related activities were recorded. Within the direct patient care activities, the five most frequently observed activities (out of a total of 10 activities) for all classifications of nursing staff were quite similar (admission and assessment, hygiene and patient/family interaction, medication and IV administration and procedures), however the absolute proportion of Level 2 RN activities were much lower than the other two groups. In terms of indirect care, three of the four most commonly occurring activities (out of a total of eight activities) were similar among groups (patient rounds and team meetings, verbal report/handover and care planning and clinical pathways). The six unit related activities occurred rarely for all groups of nurses. Conclusion This study suggests that similarities exist in the activities undertaken by ENs and Level 1 RNs, supporting the contention that role boundaries are no longer clearly delineated.

Effect of a robotic prescription-filling system on pharmacy staff activities and prescription-filling time

The effects of using an automated prescription-filling system, the ScriptPro SP-200, in an independent pharmacy were evaluated. The study was conducted at Punches Pharmacy Plus, an independent pharmacy located in Clare, Michigan. The study design was a preinstallation and postinstallation assessment of the ScriptPro SP-200 automated prescription-filling system. Videotaping and work sampling techniques were used to collect the preinstallation and postinstallation data of the ScriptPro SP-200. The use of the pharmacy staff and the time spent in direct and indirect prescription- filling activities, such as receiving, order entry, filling, inspecting, packaging, dispensing, phone calls, and inventory management, were measured and compared preinstallation and postinstallation. With the installation of automation, the percentage of time spent by the pharmacy staff significantly changed (p < 0.001). Meanwhile, there was a statistically significant difference in terms of the percentages of time spent on various activities between the preinstallation and postinstallation of automation (p < 0.001). Before installation of automation, the direct and indirect prescription-filling times used were 6.07 and 2.11 minutes, respectively, to fill one prescription. Analyses of the average time spent per prescription showed that the installation of automation could save nearly 0.22 minute per prescription, especially filling time per prescription-which was significantly decreased from 2.63 to 2.07 minutes with an average of 0.56 minute saved (p < 0.05). An automated system reduced prescription-filling time but required staffing adjustments to optimize the efficiency gained.

The analysis of personal and delay allowances using work sampling technique in the sewing room of a clothing manufacturer

PurposeThe aim of this paper is to study the operator activities in garment industry and the percentages of distribution of operations and to analyze the personal and delay allowances by observing the operations and deriving the ratios within a manufacturing period.Design/methodology/approachA work sampling technique is used. Relevant reports (1978‐2004) are studied to give the basis and methodology of the technique. In accordiance with work sampling techique, the operations to be observed in a sewing room are defined, the number of observations and observers required for each day and the procedure for making observations are determined and the distributions of work flows are calculated.FindingsIt is found that 72.7 per cent of working time in an general sewing room was spent for productive activities and 23.2 per cent for personal and unavoidable delay allowances.Practical implicationsWork sampling technique gives information about personal and delay allowances in a work flow of any sewing room. When the distributions of activites are determined, it is possible to find which activities are most responsible for low efficiency. For this purpose, standard operations time in a sewing room should be determined by time measurement studies and work flow should be organized.Originality/valueThis paper deals with an actual sewing room and gives general information about the distributions of activites in work flow which should be used for organization of any sewing room.

A comparison of self-reported and observational work sampling techniques for measuring time in nursing tasks

To compare self-reported and observational work sampling techniques when applied to ward-based nurses. A self-reported work sampling study was undertaken with nine registered nurses in an Australian teaching hospital over 8.5 weeks, followed by an observational work sampling study conducted over 4.5 weeks. Both studies used a random reminder method and a multidimensional work task classification. Field notes were also recorded and analysed. 3910 data points were collected, 667 during the self-report study and 3243 in the observational study. The two techniques yielded significant differences in work patterns of registered nurses. The observational study showed that compared with the self-reported study, patient care (40% versus 33%, P <0.000) and ward-related activities (7% versus 3%; P <0.001) were recorded significantly more frequently, and documentation less frequently (8% versus 19%; P <0.000). Both the techniques generated similar proportions of time spent in breaks (12%), medication tasks (13%) and clinical discussion (15%). The self-report technique was poorly accepted by nursing staff. The observational technique was well accepted and data collection was more effcient. The self-report work sampling technique is not a reliable method for obtaining an accurate reflection of the work tasks of ward-based nurses. The observational technique was preferred by nurses, and despite concern regarding a potential Hawthorne effect, this was not substantiated.

Comparative study of glass tube and mist chamber sampling techniques for the analysis of gaseous carbonyl compounds

In this work, glass tube and mist chamber sampling techniques using 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine as derivative agent for the analysis of gaseous carbonyl compounds are compared. Trapping efficiencies of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, acetone, acrolein, glyoxal, crotonaldehyde, benzaldehyde, butyraldehyde and valeraldehyde are experimentally determined using a gas-phase generator. In addition to generalise our results to all atmospheric gaseous compounds and derivative agents, theoretical trapping efficiencies and enrichment factors are expressed taking into account mechanisms involved in the two kinds of traps. Theoretical and experimental results show that, as expected, the trapping efficiencies of the glass tube depend mainly on solubility of compounds. The results provide new information and better understanding of phenomena occurring in the mist chamber and the ability of this sampler to concentrate the samples. Hence, the mist chamber is the more convenient sampling method when the trapping is associated to a fast derivatisation of the compounds and the glass tube technique must be used to trap atmospheric compounds without simultaneous derivatisation.

Working Postures of Dentists and Dental Hygienists

A joint study was conducted by a manufacturer of dental stools in the Midwest of the United States and Marquette University to measure the occupational postures of dentists and dental hygienists. The postures of 10 dentists and 10 dental hygienists were assessed using work sampling and video techniques. Postural data of the neck, shoulders and lower back were recorded from video and categorized into 30-degree intervals: o (neutral posture of respective joint), 30, 60 and 90 degrees. Each subject's postures were observed while they were treating patients during a four-hour period, during which 100 observations of postures were recorded at random times. Compared to standing, dentists and dental hygienists were seated 78 percent and 66 percent of the time, respectively. Dentists and dental hygienists flexed their trunk at least 30 degrees more than 50 percent of the time. They flexed their neck at least 30 degrees 85 percent of the time during the four-hour duration, and their shoulders were elevated to the side of their trunk (abducted) at least 30 degrees more half of the time. The postures of the trunk, shoulders, and neck were primarily static. This database of postures can be used by dental professionals and ergonomists to assess the risk dentists and dental hygienists are exposed to musculoskeletal disorders, such as low back pain or shoulder tenosynovitis, from deviated joint postures. They could use these data to select dental furniture or dental devices that promote good body posture, i.e., reduce the magnitude and duration of deviated joint postures, which, in theory, would decrease the risk of musculoskeletal disorders.

Management of Patients in the Intensive Care Unit: Comparison Via Work Sampling Analysis of an Acute Care Nurse Practitioner and Physicians in Training

Little is known about aspects of practice that differ between acute care nurse practitioners and physicians that might affect patients' outcomes. To determine if time spent in work activities differs between an acute care nurse practitioner and physicians in training (pulmonary/critical care fellows) managing patients' care in a step-down medical intensive care unit. Work sampling techniques were used to collect data when the nurse practitioner had 6 months' or less experience in the role (T1), after the nurse practitioner had 12 months' experience in the role (T2), and when physicians in training provided care on a rotational schedule (nurse practitioner not present, T3). These data were used to estimate the time spent in direct management of patients, coordination of care, and nonunit activities. Results for T1 and T2 were similar. When T2 and T3 were compared, the nurse practitioner and the physicians in training spent approximately half their time in activities directly related to management of patients (40% vs 44%, not significantly different). The nurse practitioner spent more time in activities related to coordination of care (45% vs 18%; P < .001) and less time in nonunit activities (15% vs 37%; P < .001). The nurse practitioner and the physicians in training spent a similar proportion of time performing required tasks. Because of training requirements, physicians spent more time than the nurse practitioner in nonunit activities. Conversely, the nurse practitioner spent more time interacting with patients and patients' families and collaborating with health team members.

Work Sampling Applied to a Human Factors Analysis of Mine Worker Positioning

Growing concern from labor unions, regulatory agencies, and industry about the safety of a prevalent underground coal mining method which utilizes remote control has prompted human factors field evaluation of mining activities. Remote control operations were implemented with little consideration given to human-system interactions. Ideally, collecting and analyzing information prior to implementing new technology would have helped to address potential problems. One such problem that operators and other mine personnel are faced with is the question of where they should safely position themselves to avoid injury while remotely operating machinery. To determine work methods employed by machine operators before and after implementation of the new method, work sampling techniques have been used to provide data about positioning of face crew members at different points in the mining cycle. This data provides information for optimal positioning, leading to safer operating procedures and identifying training shortfalls.

Cost of providing pharmaceutical services to hospice patients

The cost to a hospital pharmacy department of providing pharmaceutical services for a hospice program was studied. Drug acquisition costs were tabulated for all prescriptions dispensed to patients in the hospice program from April 1, 1992, to March 31, 1993. Direct time studies were conducted to determine the average personnel time involved in dispensing a prescription for a hospice patient. To determine the personnel time associated with auxiliary activities, self-reporting and work-sampling techniques were used. Indirect and delivery costs were also calculated. Relevant resource inputs were identified, measured, and valued by using both observation and pharmacy records. A total of 5640 hospice prescriptions were dispensed by the outpatient pharmacy; these represented 30% of all prescriptions dispensed. The average cost of dispensing a hospice prescription was $14.91 (total annual costs less drug acquisition costs). The total annual cost of providing pharmaceutical services to the hospice's patients was $196,607, and the total annual reimbursement received from the hospice program and self-paying patients was $155,623; therefore, costs exceeded revenues by $40,984. The cost to a pharmacy department of providing pharmaceutical services to patients in a hospice program substantially exceeded revenues. Greater efficiencies, a change in the pricing structure, or both may be necessary.

Multidimensional work sampling to quantify a pharmacokinetics resident's duties

A multidimensional work-sampling technique was used to quantify a pharmacokinetics resident's duties. Four dimensions were measured: activity, contact, function, and location. A code list of 47 variables was developed to encompass all activities of the resident being observed. A combination of self-reporting and observer reporting was used to test the veracity of the resident's report and to determine whether differences in reporting occurred. Observation was done 20 times a day over a five-week period (24 working days). Random time periods separated the observation points. The observer and the resident recorded 260 and 220 observations, respectively, for a total of 480. The overall reliability measure was 78%, indicating good interobserver agreement. The resident spent about 36% of his time doing work related to pharmacokinetics consultations and 23% of his time attending meetings. He spent a large proportion of time (48.5%) working alone. Much of his remaining time was spent with the Pharm.D. students and the preceptors. Multidimensional work sampling based on a combination of self-reporting and observer reporting is a useful tool for quantifying the work practices of pharmacokinetics residents.

Forecasting productivity by work sampling

The measurement of labour inputs to the productivity process is the major subject of this study. It is concerned with the simplification of the operation of collecting labour productivity information on site where it is not a one-time task and should be a continuous effort to acquire as many measurements as possible to ensure constant field management control of the project. The study employs the simple methods of work sampling and learning curves for field management control to measure labour utilization during the construction process. Work sampling technique is a simple and easy technique to use in the management of site resources, time and labour, but it is only an indirect measurement of actual productivity. Therefore, the study has concentrated on demonstrating the correlation between the work sampling percentages, unit rate productivities, and the learning rates of global activities through the development of productivity projection models. Thus, it is possible to quantify productivity and learning...

Personnel Time and Preparation Costs for Compounded Versus Premixed Intravenous Admixtures in Three Community Hospitals

Personnel time requirements and costs associated with the ordering, preparation, and administration of manually compounded versus premixed i.v. admixtures were determined at three for-profit community hospitals. The three hospitals, all owned by one corporation, ranged in size from 160 to 239 beds. At each hospital, pharmacists or technicians manually compounded admixtures in glass bottles or plastic bags. Work flow descriptions of the activities involved in the preparation and administration of admixtures were created, and time-motion and work-sampling techniques were used to observe three to five pharmacists or technicians in each hospital over a seven-day period. Drug waste also was monitored. At the conclusion of the baseline study, each hospital switched to the premixed products that they had chosen to evaluate; admixtures of cefazolin sodium, cefoxitin sodium, gentamicin sulfate, and potassium chloride were available. After a two-week acclimation period, the seven-day study was repeated. Average total labor time ranged from 5.6 to 9.1 minutes per compounded admixture to 4.1 to 7.7 minutes per premixed admixture. The percentage of total labor time devoted to compounding, delivering, stocking, and other physical handling of materials decreased by 64% for admixtures of gentamicin or potassium chloride and by 67% for admixtures of cefazolin or cefoxitin. The average reduction in annual costs for accessories, labor time, wasted drugs, and inventory at each hospital was +15,000. Additional savings were realized from overall lower acquisition costs for the premixed products at the study hospitals. The use of premixed i.v. admixtures reduced preparation time and labor and material costs in three small- and medium-sized community hospitals.

Computerized work study approach to factory design

Abstract The optimum design of productive plants is considered to be one of the fundamental factors to realize optimum productivity considering quantity of products, required level of quality, and reduction of total production costs. Work study is considered to be one of the basic tools to deal with the problems of less production and idle time. Thus, recording the reasons and number of occurrences of production delays, conducting the technical statistical analysis of these reasons will lead to proposing the solution of these problems. The objective of the presented paper is to apply a computerized work sampling technique to a production line of piston ring casting to increase its productivity by minimizing the material waiting time between production stages, and minimizing the operators idle time.

Activity analysis of pharmacy-directed drug-administration technicians

The percentage of time required by drug-administration technicians to perform predefined activities was determined using a work-sampling technique. Two trained pharmacists used random-sampling techniques to estimate the amount of time technicians spent performing activities in each of four major work categories. These categories, which included drug administration and related activities, clerical, communication, and "other," were divided into 24 activity elements, and technicians were randomly observed during the first or second work shift (8 1/2 hours) for 20 days in a one-month period. Drug-administration technicians spent the most time in the drug administration and related activities category (40.4 +/- 2.5%), followed by "other" (24.1 +/- 2.2%), communication (17.9 +/- 2.0%), and clerical (17.6 +/- 2.0%) activities. In the "other" category, technicians were not observed 11.6 +/- 1.7% of the time, but this was expected since the technicians were granted a 30-minute lunch period and two 15-minute breaks. A work-sampling technique was effective in quantifying activities performed by drug-administration technicians.

Activity analysis of decentralized pharmacists in a unit dose dispensing and drug-administration program

The relative amount of time spent by pharmacists on specific activities related to a pharmacy-coordinated drug administration and dispensing program in a 1000-bed tertiary-care teaching hospital was determined. Discrete activities of decentralized pharmacists involved in the program were defined using information from published reports and a short pilot study. Using a work-sampling technique, two pharmacy residents who had been trained to work as decentralized pharmacists performed instantaneous observations of the activities of pharmacists on five patient-care floors over a one-month period. Neither weekend nor night-shift activities were observed. Approximately 26% of a pharmacist's time was spent coordinating drug administration activities, and another 25% was spent providing clinical consultation or drug information services or performing research. The remainder of pharmacists' time was spent in activities related to drug distribution, interprofessional communication, or miscellaneous tasks. A work-sampling method proved useful in quantifying the amount of time associated with pharmacists' activities in a pharmacy-coordinated drug administration program.

Work-Sampling Evaluation of an Upgraded Outpatient Pharmacy Computer System

The effect of an upgraded outpatient pharmacy computer system on routine dispensing activities was studied. A computer system that previously generated patient bills, prescription labels, and management reports was upgraded to provide patient profiles, allergy and drug-drug interaction monitoring, auxiliary-label notification, and prescription prices. Four months after the upgraded system was implemented, dispensing activities were analyzed using a work-sampling technique. The percent of time spent in prescription processing, inventory maintenance, problem solving, or miscellaneous activities was determined. These data were compared with data obtained in a study of the old system. A total of 5897 observations of the upgraded system was compared with 5632 observations in the previous study. There were significantly different changes among the four activity groups for the total staff and for pharmacists, technicians, and the data-entry operator. Under the modified system, pharmacists spent more time in prescription coding and less time on patient counseling. The data-entry operator had less computer-entry time. It could not be stated conclusively that overall efficiency was improved by the new system.

Work sampling training: A simulation gaming approach

This article presents a strategy that shows that simulation-based gaming can be used to educate in-plant management and staff as well as industrial engineering students in the work sampling technique. A functional simulation game is developed through narrative and flow charts that will give students a better understanding of the many variables inherent in a work sampling study. The simulation-based learning experiences permits many of the decisions made in a real work sampling study to be made in just minutes on a CRT or teletype, in contrast to days or even weeks of real time under actual study conditions.

Pharmacy personnel activities and costs in decentralized and centralized unit dose drug distribution systems

Pharmacy personnel activities and labor costs directly associated with concurrent decentralized and centralized unit dose drug distribution systems in the same institution were compared. A work-sampling observation technique was used for the activity survey. Analysis of the data showed that: (1) the activities of pharmacy personnel vary significantly between the decentralized and centralized systems, (2) pharmacists in the decentralized area spent a significantly greater portion of their productive time performing therapy-related activities than did those pharmacists in the centralized system, (3) multiple staffing patterns associated with the centralized unit dose system afforded a significantly greater participation in educational activities by all pharmacy personnel staffing that area, (4) dispensing activities accounted for most nonpharmacist personnel time in both systems, and (5) based on cost/unit dose and existing staffing patterns, there was no appreciable difference in personnel labor costs associated with the two systems. However, it was determined that a considerable cost difference could be expected if the decentralized system's hours of service were equivalent to those associated with the centralized system.

Verbal communications of community pharmacists.

Community pharmacists, by virtue of their location, are thought to be among the most accessible health care workers in the delivery system. To estimate the importance of this assertion it is necessary to understand the communication habits of pharmacists, especially their interactions with patients. Since verbal communication is the most frequent form of patient interaction, this study attempts to specify the type and amount of all pharmacist communication with emphasis on the pharmacist-patient process. Using a modified work sampling technique, communication data were collected on community pharmacists practicing in chain pharmacies. Data are presented in the context of a causal model. The strongest pathway in the model is found to be the inverse relationship of prescription department staffing to the percentage of time pharmacists devote to communication with patients. Prescription volume is seen to have a moderately positive effect on the level of communication. However, further analysis reveals staffing to be the limiting factor. The findings suggest that changes in the environment of the community pharmacists studied would do much to increase pharmacist-patient contact. An educational effort also is indicated to assure that patients receive quality communication.

Work-Sampling as a Technique in Determining Labor Utilization of Dairy Plants

Summary Work-sampling was found to be a useful time-study technique in securing labor utilization data in a dairy plant. The work-sampling technique has several advantages over other time-study procedures in the collecting of data on labor requirements. The technique will obtain a maximum of information in a minimum of time, which is important both from the standpoint of the more efficient utilization of the time-study man's time and the cost to the plant. One man can study the entire plant operation, or any particular phase of the operation that management desires. Another feature of importance is that this technique will not interfere, to any extent, with the daily routine of plant operation. Workers pay little attention to the time-study observer, since the observations are made by mere glances at the workers, rather than by direct concentration on a specific employee, as utilized in a production study.